This is a session on how to separate natural from synthetic rubies.
What we appear to be running into is a situation where we're seeing more and more flawless
or near flawless stones on the market.
This coupled together with advertising where a company will get together and they will
advertise saying that their stones can't be told from natural and that their stones have
inclusions that are similar or exactly like the inclusions found in stones that nature
produces.
This type of thing is almost a scare tactic and after a while you will have a competent
gemologist on one hand that one week would be able to separate a natural ruby and call
it very quickly for instance a tie stone and the very next week after reading some of this
literature and information it would be completely gun shy of that very same stone.
Synthetic stones are not getting any easier to identify.
Even in our gem trade and research laboratories we occasionally run into stones that a number
of people have to look at and test and a great deal of sophisticated testing has to be done
on these.
When separating natural from synthetic rubies there are a number of things that we can look
at and this is what the lecture is about today showing you what you can do as a gemologist
in your store in your own organization without having to send the stone in for sophisticated
testing and it also gives you an idea of when you should back off and know when to seek
assistance so that you don't make a costly mistake.
The very first process that we should be concerned with and the one that's of great interest
to, should be of great interest to gemologists because most of the synthetics that we literally
see on the market are grown by this process and that's the Verneuil process.
It hasn't really changed over the years at all.
You have an oxygen and a hydrogen gas intake.
Those gases are combined and ignited.
The flame burns at a temperature more than hot enough to melt the powder coming down
through the center and if the powder has a proper coloring agent in it you will get a
ruby coming out and you have to control the area that the boule is in, what's called a
boule, is in the flame because if it's too far into the flame, the flame gets too intense
it will literally start to boil so they control this by controlling the support mechanism
as the boule gets larger and larger and this is what the product that comes out of this
system looks like and it is properly called a boule.
The inclusions we generally see are flow zones, melt zones that form along the top.
If you can imagine a magnified cross section of a top of one of these things, this is what
you're going to see, the curved strie in there and also the gas bubbles.
You'll notice that the gas bubbles, some of them are just little individuals in between
that layer there where others, you'll notice that there's a very definite lineage to the
gas bubbles and two layers there and what's happened at that particular point is you've
actually started a boiling, you've started to nucleate small little gas vesicles there
because you've lost control of the torch, they lost control of the torch, they regained
control and then lost it again near the top of the screen.
Okay, platinum crucibles used in the flux growth process.
Now this is the process that scares most people today.
These are the things like the Ramara, the Chatham, the Cashon and so forth, the rubies
that are grown in this method and what a flux allows you to do is it allows you to dissolve
something at a much lower temperature and grow crystals at a much lower temperature
than you would normally have to use and grow crystals at if you were operating in a melt.
A good analogy to this is sodium chloride, table salt.
If you take and try to melt sodium chloride, you have to put it in a Bunsen burner and
get it up to about 870 degrees centigrade before it actually melts but if you take a
glass of water and pour sodium chloride into it, it dissolves into solution and if you
heat that water up near the boiling point of the water, you can get a great deal more
salt in there and as the water cools, crystals start to form.
The same thing happens here, they find a fluxing agent that will allow corundum to be dissolved
at a much lower temperature and they saturate or supersaturate the solution with corundum.
They will either seed or not seed.
If they put predetermined seeds in specific spots, that's where the crystals will generally
grow.
If they don't seed and they allow spontaneous nucleation, the crystals will find tiny nuclei
that you really probably can't even see, little imperfections on the crucible wall and so
forth where crystals will start to nucleate.
And so you can either grow by spontaneous nucleation or by seeding and both methods
are used in growing flux rubies.
This is an example of a Romara ruby.
It's grown by the spontaneous nucleation method.
There isn't a seed used in this case and you can see the perfection of this crystal.
Some of the crystals that come out are extremely fine.
This happens to be one of the best I think and most perfectly formed crystals that has
been grown to date by using the Romara process, but it's dominated by rhombohedral faces.
And then this is a stone cut from the material.
Another method and one that you can grow extremely large and almost flawless materials from is
the pulling method.
The crystalline mass that's pulled out of this melt is not really called a boule.
It's called a rod and it comes out and sometimes you can get three foot long or four foot long
rods that are many inches in diameter.
And it's a unique process.
You have a melt down below of the necessary constituents.
You start out with a seed that's mounted in a chuck.
It's dipped into the melt.
They literally pull the rod out of the melt.
You have to have a heat shield around it and a method of cooling and so forth and a method
of controlling the temperature because it has to be hot down below and a little cooler
above in order for the crystal to grow properly.
This is what a rod or a section of a rod looks like.
Now the end's been cut off of this but you can see a slight difference in a boule.
The only inclusion that we really encounter in this with any regularity at all and we
don't encounter it very often is a sort of wispy smoke-like veiling.
Generally speaking we don't see it anywhere near this prominently.
What we will see is just one small little wisp running through the stone.
You need something like a fiber optic illuminator generally to find these.
The last technique that's currently being used on the market commercially is the floating
zone or float zone refining technique.
What you have is a sintered feed rod with all the necessary ingredients to produce a
ruby in it and you have some sort of a heating system.
The feed rods are extremely thin.
The reason being is there's no crucible used.
They melt a zone through the center of the feed rod and that melt zone is held in place
by its own surface tension.
The heat source is moved upward and as it's moved upward the feed rod and the crystal
coming out the bottom are mounted in chucks and that's rotated and you end up with a very
nicely formed zoned crystal coming out the bottom as the feed rod is devoured by the
heat source.
This is what one of the rods looks like.
The material we've seen so far has all had a very distinctive inclusion in it as it almost
reminds people of what you see in a Burmese stone, the solid solution intermixing of calcite
and corundum, but it isn't.
It's just almost like a heat wave effect that you get from the uneven melting in the material
and the uneven mixing of the ingredients so you get a strain forming and also slight differences
in refractive index that manifest themselves this way.
The other thing we always find and we've always found in all this material is gas bubbles
so they don't refine it very highly.
One of the things that first strikes someone when they see a synthetic ruby is size.
Rubies should make you suspicious.
The bigger a stone gets and the more flawless it is, the more suspicious you should become.
We've literally seen doorknobs sized faceted rubies come through GI labs that have nothing
in them, that are grown by the pulling process.
So the bigger something is, the more flawless it is, be suspicious of it because rubies
do not grow in an environment that is conducive in nature, that is conducive to flawless materials.
This shows an example of various sized stones.
The one on the lower right is a little over a carat in size and the one on the upper left
is over 10 carats.
The smallest one and the second largest one are natural stones, the other two are synthetics.
Clarity.
Clarity sort of goes hand in hand with size.
The smaller a stone is, the more likely it is to be flawless if it's a natural stone.
The larger it is, the less likely it is and so on.
Stones that are so poor quality that they're almost opaque, translucent at best, and then
you get up into some finer stones that have less and less inclusions.
A premium stone would be one that has enough inclusions to tell a competent gemologist
that it is a natural stone, but not so many inclusions that when you put it in a ring
or on your hand or in a piece of jewelry that the inclusions show and detract from the stone.
Cutting style.
We used to think that the native cut was a cut that could be used as an indicator of
separating a natural from a synthetic stone.
It's not so much anymore because a lot of stones are literally cut overseas in Thailand.
A lot of flux materials, rough material, and so forth has been sent over to Thailand.
Before they declared chapter 11, Kashan was literally sending the bulk of their rough
material over to Thailand to have it cut and sold over there.
So it's not something that we can depend on as much as we used to be able to.
The most common cut for a natural stone is, as far as rubies go, is an oval mixed cut.
You see it in the lower right there.
In the upper left, we see this big scissor cut.
Now a scissor cut, as far as I'm concerned, is a pretty good clue that a stone is synthetic.
That doesn't mean that somebody couldn't take a natural stone and cut it as a scissor
cut.
Why they would want to, I have no idea because it isn't a particularly attractive cut.
I have never seen a natural corundum cut in a scissor cut.
That includes rubies and sapphires.
Optic axis direction, that's something that people used to depend on to some degree to
tell them if a stone was natural or synthetic, and it still is a clue at least.
Generally speaking, synthetic stones, the vast majority of them that are on the market,
have optic axis running in the girdle direction.
In other words, you have to try to find the optic figure through the girdle, and it's
very difficult.
In natural stones, for the most part, you will look for the optic axis somewhere through
the table or coming through the crown area, and it's much more easy to resolve an optic
figure out of a stone cut like this.
The reason they do this is the shape of the rough that they get, and also the color that
they're trying to get out of the stone.
However, a lot of flux materials are cut this way as well now, so you can take it at least
as an indicator.
Color used to be that when we had reagent grade rubies around and everything was grown
out of highly purified compounds, that color was pretty well cut and dried.
People actually would say that something looks too good.
Well, now there are rubies that still look too good around.
All those are still around, but because something doesn't look too good doesn't necessarily
mean that it isn't synthetic.
Because of the dopants they use now and so forth, iron doping to mask fluorescence and
things, we now have stones with brownish or orangeish or yellowish, even a strong purple
overtones that we didn't have before in the way of synthetics.
And so the colors have a tendency to intermix, and this is an example of a whole intermixing
of colors and a series of rubies.
There's really no clue there to pick out a natural from a synthetic stone.
Ultraviolet fluorescence.
You can still use ultraviolet fluorescence to a great degree if you have comparison stones
generally to use with it.
In other words, keep a nice pure vernoi synthetic around or a nicely pulled ruby around, a tie
stone around, maybe a stone from Burma and so forth that are known stones to you that
you can use for comparison purposes.
If a stone fluoresces extremely strongly to longwave and has a pretty good shortwave fluorescence
to it, I would say that that stone is synthetic.
If it's a very strong, fluorescing longwave stone.
Nature doesn't produce extremely strong, fluorescing longwave stones.
However, if a stone shows what we generally consider as a tie fluorescence, that is a
moderate to even weak longwave fluorescence, and a shortwave fluorescence that's very
weak to inert, that does not mean anymore that that's a natural stone like it used to.
Now what that means is it could be a synthetic stone or it could be a natural stone because
we do see now flux stones on the market that have the characteristics of a fluorescent
stone that we would call a normally a tie type of a fluorescence.
And this is an example of a series of stones showing the degree of fluorescence that you
can encounter.
Obviously, the big emerald cut there is a synthetic stone.
Some of the others that are fluorescing a little less than that are questionable and
you can't really say one way or the other.
But if you do get a very strong longwave fluorescence, you can say that a stone is synthetic.
The only thing that we really have anymore that's proof positive, it seems, as far as
a gemologist can do in a normal environment are the inclusions because you don't have
access to sophisticated trace elemental analysis techniques like neutron activation analysis.
And you don't have access to the equipment that a research gemological laboratory has,
spectrophotometers and so forth.
What you have are the basic gemological instruments.
You can't buy adequately if you're not prepared to use your gemological instruments.
If you go to Thailand, for instance, on a buying trip, they're not going to let you
take stones with you and send them back if you're not satisfied after you get a trace
elemental analysis done on them.
That's not the way it works.
You have to make a decision on the spot.
So what you have to do is rely on your basic gemological instruments.
What you can do on that particular point in time when a sales representative comes through
your establishment or when you're out in the field buying somewhere on a buying trip,
you have to be able to make the decision at that time.
That's where inclusions are a very, very nice thing to have.
Now, we're not talking so many inclusions that the stone is ugly.
What we're talking about is enough inclusions to tell you that the stone is natural.
And inclusions are an interesting thing because one thing they teach you in gemology is you
do not site identify anything, right?
And you don't do.
Well, what are you doing when you look through your microscope and you're calling a crystal,
a pyrite crystal inside of a stone?
Are you trace elementally analyzing that?
Are you doing anything to that stone other than site identifying that particular crystal?
And when you site identify that crystal, that's telling you whether that's natural or synthetic.
You're doing a site identification at that particular time.
And you have to think about what that's actually doing.
If you had a microscope and someone gave you a ruby and you knew nothing about gemstones
and you looked through that microscope at that ruby and they said, write down everything
you can tell me about this particular stone, you'd write down virtually nothing.
You wouldn't even know what you were looking at.
And then once you study gemology and you learned about inclusions and so forth, you'd be amazed
how much more you could write about that particular stone.
What that's saying is that the only thing a microscope gives you is what's already up
in your head.
This is an example of bohemite needles.
Now, these things have been called rutile, but they're not.
A mineral called bohemite inside of a Thai ruby.
You can also find these things to a lesser extent in Burmese stones occasionally in Thai
stones.
Montana stones have them in there, as do African stones.
But they form along joints of repeated twinning.
You can also take polarized light and put it on a ruby like this.
And because the twinning is optically active, it will react to the polarized light.
But twinning is also evident.
We've seen it in this case in a flame fusion material and also in flux grown stones.
If you looked at this stone under a microscope, you would also see the bohemite needles.
So I would say the bohemite needles are about 99.99% proof of natural origin, but because
I've seen them in a couple of flame fusion stones, I can't say that they're 100% proof.
Something that might be mistaken for optically active twinning, except that you don't see
it by polarized light, you see it by ordinary dark field illumination, there's no polarization
involved, is this rainbow graining, as it's been referred to, which is really nothing
more than a diffraction grating effect coming off of the fine growth laminations in this
synthetic Romaro ruby.
The solid solution intermixing of the calcite that the Burmese rubies grow in, here you
see it.
You have the intermixing of this calcite and the calcium carbonate and the aluminum oxide.
And you get this sort of heat wave-like effect.
The one thing about this is that even though the pattern changes on rotation, it doesn't
disappear.
You can see it in a lot of different areas in a lot of different directions.
The general pattern will slightly change, but you'll always be able to see it.
However, in a Romaro stone like this, if you get it in a particular look, this flux stone,
you'll see something that looks something like this type of a grain effect.
But this is very, very fleeting.
If you just rotate this stone ever so slightly, it disappears and you can't find it until
you get it back in this orientation again.
So it's not a three-dimensional effect.
Then in natural stones, the angularity.
You always hear people talk about the degree of angularity and how that's proof of natural
versus synthetic and so forth.
Angularity is something that depends on the viewing angle.
It shows you how this changes with just a slight tilt, very, very slight.
This is the same stone in the same position, essentially, just a very slight tilt.
And if you imagine the angularity changing here, in any stone, if you have a very steep
angle like this and you're looking at it, as you change that angle, it becomes less
and less steep in profile and all of a sudden it can look like a line.
So it depends on the direction you look at something as to how angular it actually is.
This is an example in a remar ruby, both color and growth zoning.
And you see the angularity there.
This is also in the synthetic stones.
It's a very, very fleeting thing.
As you rotate the stone, it virtually will disappear.
You can also look for things like slight curving undulations, like you see on the right-hand
side there coming off of that peak.
Those things are proof of synthesis.
Primary fluid inclusions, in this case in a Burmese ruby.
They differ from what you see in a synthetic stone.
If you look at this, you'll notice it looks very, very transparent.
There are a few solid crystals in there, but the overall effect is one of transparency.
Notice these primary flux inclusions as compared to the one we saw in the Burmese stone.
They're very, very solid looking.
They don't look at all transparent except in a few areas where the flux is contracted
during cooling and we get a nice clear-looking zone up there.
That was in a remara stone.
In the tie stones, we get natural glass inclusions from a melt environment, but you see the little
gas bubble in there.
That cannot move because it's trapped.
The fluid that surrounds it is a glass, a natural glass, and not a watery solution.
An example of this, a proof of this, is these three gas bubbles in the one cavity.
If this was a watery solution, there would only be one gas bubble in that cavity, not
three, but because it isn't water, the three bubbles can exist.
Bubbles like this, large bubbles in a big cavity like this, you just don't see them
in synthetic stones.
Anytime you see anything even remotely like this, it's a proof of a natural stone.
Notice that the glass is all cracked in this case, and that's what we see in the tie stones
are natural glassy inclusions.
Another example of these, looking at them at different lights, is a diffuse transmitted
light.
You can see easily all the different gas members in the little chambers.
What you don't see is the tension fractures around them because of the secondary heating,
not that was done by man, but that was done by nature when this material was brought near
the surface of the earth by a secondary intrusive.
Here's what you see here, and you notice all the differences in color in the little moth
holes in the material.
It shows that there's healing beginning to take place there.
This is absolute proof of a natural stone, and it's also absolute proof that the stone
has not been heated.
This kind of an inclusion is a liquid and gaseous carbon dioxide inclusion, and the
crystals in there are graphite that you see, not hematite.
Those inclusions like that, we used to see them a number of years ago in tie sapphires
and rubies, but we don't see them so much anymore because a lot of the stones are heat
treated.
When you do see this bubble, you'll notice in the next picture it's gone.
It's gone beyond the phase transition temperature of about 88 degrees Fahrenheit.
You can bring it back and forth as many times as you want to.
If you put this in a heating environment where you're starting to try to heat treat the stone,
you compound the pressure outward tremendously, and all of a sudden the crystal will just
literally blow.
When you do see one, you know you've got an unheat treated stone.
This brings up where a research microscope could be used.
In order to use a fingerprint in the beginning stages of your, especially in the beginning
stages of your studies of inclusions, to tell whether something is natural or synthetic,
because all a fingerprint is is a healed fracture.
It doesn't make any difference whether it's from a synthetic environment or a natural
environment.
It's the same remnant.
It's a healed fracture.
What you have to be able to do is see the individual little islands.
You have to see what's going on in an island, one of those little dots in there.
If a fingerprint pattern is large enough, like you see on the left-hand side, you can
see easily that it's a flux inclusion.
It's a nice solid crystalline-looking flux in there.
However, on the right-hand side of the screen, you can't see that.
All you can see is individual little white dots.
They could be anything, because you're getting tindle scattering.
That's what's giving you the white color.
You'd have to be able to magnify that high enough to see the individual dots, and that's
where maybe a research microscope that had a thousand-power capability might come in
handy.
But for most practical purposes, you can't really use a fingerprint as a determinative
factor.
Larger primary inclusions, though, you can learn different things about them by using
different lighting techniques.
In a transmitted light situation, you can see the open areas, the areas of contraction
that have taken place.
If you bring in an oblique illuminator, you can see how cracked-looking the material is,
almost like mud cracks in a dry lake bed.
In the case of this ramara, you can also see the coloration of the flux very easily.
And then if you put a light at a different angle, you get the iridescence off of this.
You can actually see that there's a separation between the main cavity itself and the flux
that's in there, because the flux is actually contracted away from the walls of the cavity
slightly.
Natural inclusions.
Again, you have to see the individual islands to tell if this is a natural or synthetic
stone.
This is in a natural stone.
And one thing that you see here is all these interconnecting tubes and then the little
dots.
Well, at one point, all the little dots were actually interconnecting tubes as well.
And that's just part of the healing process.
If you were to be able to put this in a hydrothermal environment and put pressure on it and reheat
it, you would find that over a period of a few weeks, those other tubes that you see
there would all become little dots.
That's just part of the healing process in a fracture.
Here we have something that looks very much like a flux inclusion, very much like a fingerprint
in a flux or something, a drippy looking flux.
However, the difference here is if you look at it closely, it's transparent.
There aren't any crystalline areas inside of these cavities except for a few minute
little things that look like peritype crystals here and there.
The rest of it is just completely transparent, and you don't see this kind of a thing in
a flux environment.
Here we have an example, again, of a fingerprint and what happens when you look at it in different
areas.
In its finer form, this is in a ramara stone, so we know that the flux should be an orangey
color.
But in its finest forms, the flux looks white.
The reason is you can't see the body color of it in those fine little particles.
All you're getting is light scattering off of them, a tindle scattering, and they appear
white.
However, if you look especially toward the left-hand side of the screen, you'll see that
the bigger inclusions start to take on a little bit of body color.
They start to get a little bit orange-ish, yellowish in appearance.
In a cashon stone, again, now if you compare this to the fingerprint we saw in the tie
stone, there are some similarities in a general overall appearance of the shape of the webbing,
but it's opaque-looking.
It's white and opaque-looking.
It doesn't have that transparency to it.
And then in tie stones, we have some examples of healing that we can pick up by a reflected
light, not polarized light, but an overhead reflected light, that are very, very directional.
In other words, if you get slightly off of the table, you see where this drops off the
table on the right-hand side, it virtually disappears, although it really isn't gone.
The lighting angle has just changed, and you can't see it.
And all those little hexagonal-looking moth holes in there are examples of healing.
The dark spots are the areas that have healed, and the areas that are still light are still
interconnected and filled with a fluid.
Another thing that we can see in a tie stone with a proper illumination are these little
things that have been called Saturn inclusions and so on down the line.
They're little ring-like things.
They have what looks almost like a little planet in the center with a ring around them,
and they illuminate very, very nicely at the proper angle.
Again, this is proof of a tie stone, but you have to be able to illuminate it properly.
You will not see this effect without a proper overhead illumination.
Solid-included crystals, they are proof of a natural synthetic, or of a natural stone,
provided you can identify them and recognize them.
In this case, it's a very obvious metallic pyrite crystal.
You have to be able to use these things, because there are solid-appearing inclusions and solids
that do occasionally occur in synthetic stones as well.
This is an apatite crystal.
Apatite crystals occur.
This one is in an African stone.
It's a yellowish-looking crystal.
Apatite crystals occur in a number of other corundums from different localities, rubies,
particularly Sri Lanka, also some Burmese stones, and so forth.
But this is a very typical shape of an apatite, a hexagonal elongated prism.
And again, you don't see anything like this in a synthetic calcite crystal.
This to me is a premium sort of a stone, because the calcite crystal is lying along the pavilion
of the stone.
You cannot see the crystal without a microscope.
When you look at it with a microscope, you can't even see the strong doubling through
it.
And a little pyrite grain that's melted.
You see the melted appearance of that little round globule in the center.
Pyrite is an iron sulfide, and it was formed originally at depth, crystallized originally
at depth inside of the Thai host, the Thai ruby host, and a secondary intrusive brought
it near the surface, took pressure off, and melted it.
And when it melted and the pressure was released, it literally expanded and then exploded, throwing
or spilling off part of its melt constituents into the fracture that formed around it, and
the rest of it healed up in the form of a fingerprint.
These are the things that we refer to as comet tails or meteors, whatever.
They sometimes will, you will notice that they always, or they have a little crystal
at the end there that nucleates the growth disturbance behind.
Sometimes they'll appear not to have an inclusion there, but they always do.
It may be so minute that you can't see it forming the tail.
But it's a growth blockage, and it's pointing from the lower left to the upper right is
the direction of primary growth.
And what you have is a whole series of dislocations filled with flux behind there.
We've seen these in Cachans, and we've seen them in Ramara stones.
I have also seen them in natural sapphires and natural, and in garnets and in topaz and
so forth, but I've never seen one in a natural ruby.
It's a growth blockage, though, so that doesn't mean it couldn't occur.
But it's not going to look the same way.
It's going to look different.
There's going to be a different crystal at the tip, usually a very obvious crystal, and
the dislocations are filled with something the size of flux.
And we see a lot of platinum in the Chatham product.
This is a malleable, moldable metal that occurs in extremely thin plates.
And because of this, it can or it often does take on a very rumpled appearance.
It doesn't have the growth features that we associate with things, the triangular helix
and so forth, that we associate with hematite, ilmenite, and things that may otherwise be
mistaken as platinum.
Now, this is an example of chrysoberyl inclusion, synthetic chrysoberyl in a synthetic Chatham
ruby.
Chatham has grown barrel, we know that, in the form of emerald and corundum.
And so chrysoberyl is sort of an intermediate product, so it's not that surprising to find.
Seed crystals.
Sometimes we find seed crystals, and they will have a veined-like effect, a bluish appearance
to them along the edges and so forth.
And this is one of the things you can look for in a Chatham stone, because they are seeded.
So you can look for a bluish vein running through it, maybe a purplish kind of a cast
to it.
The rain in Cachans, it's very directional.
It's found, normally we find it easiest to find it with a fiber-optic illuminator brought
in from the side of the stone, because it creates a tremendously strong light scattering
off of the fine particles when you get it in the right direction.
And there's no mistaking this for anything else, when you see this you know you've got
a Cachan stone.
The smoky little veils that we occasionally see in the pulled material, you see one of
them here, it looks almost like a little lightning strike or a little wisp of smoke.
Very difficult to find sometimes, you have to really search hard for these in the pulled
materials.
And in rutile needles, in this case in a Burmese stone, you'll notice the very easy, easily
resolved individual crystals there.
Some of them even show dart-like twinning.
Here's looking down at Cabochon, a star stone, and you'll notice in the center there that
individual needles are very easily observed.
However, in the next stone, which is a synthetic, which is taken at the same magnification,
we don't see any easily observable needles, individually resolvable needles.
The needles in synthetic stones are extremely fine the way they precipitate it.
That's one way of separating the two.
I leave you with this slide because this shows how complex things are getting.
And this is an example of the surface of a synthetic flux crystal.
And you can imagine the way inclusions are trapped is each one of those little steps
along there is actually a growth step.
And that can be grown over by the next step and trap flux in there.
So you can, any one of those can form a trapping mechanism.
It just shows you how complex things actually are.
You have to understand the growth processes from the beginning to really understand where
the inclusions come from and how they get there.
So I'm going to leave you with this slide because this shows how complex things are
getting.
I'm going to leave you with this slide because this shows how complex things are getting.