Question number 208, ask us to interpret this PIREP.
Let's look at the PIREP found at the bottom of that question.
First of all, it's UA, so we know it's a PIREP.
It's over MRB at 6,000 feet.
Sky is intermittently between layers, that's a BL.
TB is turbulence, we're finding moderate turbulence.
Remarks, moderate rain, rain without a plus or a minus.
If there was a minus, it would have been light rain.
Plus is heavy rain, so moderate rain.
And the turbulence is increasing westward.
So we just find an answer that covers all of that.
It's answer three.
It's 6,000 feet, intermittently between layers,
moderate turbulence, moderate rain,
and turbulence increasing westward.
Question number 210, what weather conditions
are depicted within the area indicated
by arrow D on figure five?
Arrow D, or first of all, figure five
is a high level significant Prague chart.
And arrow D has to do with this scalloped area, which
is CBs, isolated, embedded.
The base, this is a high level, so the base
is below the base of the chart.
The chart starts at 24,000 feet.
So the base starts somewhere below 24,000
and go up to 410, 41,000.
So we look for an answer.
It has all that, and it's answer two.
Forecast, isolated, embedded, cumulonimbus.
Base is below 24,000 feet MSL, tops at 41,000 feet MSL,
and less than 1 eighth coverage.
And that's just isolated, but less than 1 eighth coverage.
Question 212, top of the page, what weather conditions
are depicted within the area indicated
by arrow B on figure five?
Same chart, arrow B talks about a turbulence area.
This is moderate to severe turbulence,
because we have one little top hat and then two here.
So moderate to severe turbulence.
Again, the bases are below the chart,
and the chart starts at 24,000 feet.
So somewhere below 24,000, and it goes to 33,000.
Answer two, moderate to severe turbulence below 24,000 feet
MSL to 33,000 feet MSL.
Question 213, what information is depicted by arrow A?
Now we'll still be looking at figure five.
Same figure, now we're talking about arrow A,
and we see this 340 in the box.
And that just means the tropopause
is found at 34,000 feet.
Answer number three, the height of the tropopause
in hundreds of feet above MSL.
Question 215, what feature is associated
with the tropopause?
No figure in this one.
The feature that's associated with the tropopause
is answer three, an abrupt change
in the temperature lapse rate.
Remember, it's 2 degrees per 1,000 feet.
And then where it changes, where that lapse rate changes,
is where the tropopause occurs, which
is the line between the troposphere
and the stratosphere.
Question 218, top of page 21, what weather conditions
are depicted in the area indicated
by arrow A on the radar summary chart, which is on figure six?
Let's look at figure six, radar summary chart,
and the arrow A here is pointing to a contour area
within this larger contour area.
So that just tells us that we have
strong to very strong echoes.
And also, we see a little 300 with a line underneath it.
That just means the tops found here at 30,000 feet.
And so that would be answer number four,
strong to very strong echoes, echo tops of 30,000 feet MSL,
thunderstorms, and rain showers.
Question 219, what weather conditions
are depicted in the area indicated by arrow D
on the radar summary chart?
Arrow D of the radar summary chart talks about the,
there's a really small little contour in there.
You can't see too well.
But that's a third contour level.
So that is intense to extreme echoes.
Also, we have a top of 41,000 feet.
And 41 knows over here, the top for the extreme
is right here, 290, 29,000 feet.
And you see this little line showing
that the cell movement is at 50 knots towards the northeast.
So that's answer three, intense to extreme echoes
within the smallest contour, echo tops of 29,000 feet MSL.
And the cell movement is toward the northeast at 50 knots.
All right, we only have about 14 questions to go with weather.
We're at the bottom of page 21, question 225.
What weather conditions are depicted
in the area indicated by arrow F on the radar summary chart?
Arrow F is down there in the top of Florida.
So let's look at arrow F. And we see a very dark line.
That just means that that's a line of thunderstorms.
We need to find an echo tops.
Right here, we have a 460, 460, 46,000 feet
is the tops of that line.
And looking around, I don't see that the line is moving at all.
Nothing, no arrows showing that the line is moving.
So it's answer two, a line of echoes, thunderstorms,
highest echo tops of 46,000 feet MSL, no line movement indicated.
OK, top of page 22, question 226.
Hazardous wind shear is commonly encountered near the ground.
Answer three, during periods of strong temperature inversion
and near thunderstorms.
Question 228, what is the significance
of the annotations MDT and SLGT on the 00 Zulu to 1200 Zulu
panel of the convective outlook in figure seven?
Let's look at figure seven.
And that's a severe weather outlook chart.
The SLGT is slight and MDT is moderate.
And that just has to do with the risk of thunderstorms.
So it's answer number three, moderate risk
of severe thunderstorms surrounded
by a slight risk area.
Question 229, if you hear a SIGMET alert,
how can you obtain the information in the SIGMET?
That's answer number four, contact the nearest flight
service station and ascertain whether the advisory is
pertinent to your flight.
Question 230, bottom of the page.
This symbol, it's an F300 on the trope wind
shear prog represents the, we'll be on figure eight, arrow A.
Turn to figure eight, and that is the tropopause height
vertical wind shear prog chart.
The 300 in the box just shows this line
are all areas where the tropopause is at 30,000 feet.
So it's answer number three, the flight level of the tropopause.
Next question is 232, what is the approximate wind direction
and velocity at Albuquerque?
We'll be referring to figure nine.
Look at figure nine, and that, with Albuquerque,
it's even labeled if you don't know where Albuquerque
is, central New Mexico.
The arrow with the flag shows us the wind direction
is from 240.
Each one of those big pennets is 50 knots.
The long line is 10 knots, and the half line is 5 knots.
So that would be 50, 100, 110, 115 knots.
And the temperature is minus 61 degrees.
So it's answer four, they don't even
ask about the temperature, 240 degrees at 115 knots.
Next question is 233.
The reference to 6K indicates, what
are we referring to figure eight, arrow B?
OK, back to figure eight, arrow B shows 6K.
It just has to do with the vertical wind
shear, or in other words, six knots, vertical wind
shear per 1,000 feet.
So it's answer one, vertical wind shear per 1,000 feet.
OK, now we're going to jump around a little to finish
the weather questions.
The next question is on page 28, question 291.
291, what service is indicated by the solid square
in the radio aids to navigation box for the PRB VORTAC?
We'll be referring to figure 34.
Let's look at figure 34, and that's
just an excerpt from an actual chart showing us
the Paso Robles VOR, and we have that little box,
or that darkened square in the lower right-hand corner
of the VOR box.
That means that we have a tweep, so it
would be answer two, availability of a tweep.
Over to question 409 on page 40.
Hold on here, let me turn my page.
OK, I'll hold on.
I'll hold on till I get there.
Question 409, top of the page.
While you are flying at flight level 250,
you hear ATC give an altimeter setting of 2892 inches
in your area.
At what pressure altitude are you flying?
First of all, HG just has to do with the chemical symbol
for mercury, so it's inches of mercury.
2892 is a whole inch less than standard conditions.
Remember, 2992, and they threw that in.
That's extraneous information.
In other words, you forget about it.
If you're at flight level 250, you're
in the positive control area.
Anytime you're in the positive control area, or the PCA,
you want to dial in 2992.
Remember, anytime you dial in 2992,
you're reading pressure altitude directly
from your altimeter.
So the answer is 25,000 feet, answer number two,
because you're flying at flight level 250.
This is a question for the unwary, isn't it?
Exactly.
OK, we'll jump around again to question 431 on page 42.
Pilots of IFR flights seeking ATC,
in-flight weather avoidance assistance,
should keep in mind that?
Air traffic control radar picks up moving objects.
It can pick up stationary objects,
or relatively stationary objects, like a thunderstorm.
But the controllers tend to blank that information out,
because it clutters up their scope.
So if you're flying and ask air traffic control
to let you know where you are from a particular thunderstorm,
he may not have it on his scope, because he
can blank that out.
So just be wary of that, and that he may not
be able to give you that information.
It's answer number one, air traffic control radar
limitations and frequency congestion may limit
the controller's capability to provide this service.
Next, we'll go over to page 43, question 448.
In route at flight level 290, your altimeter
is set correctly, but you failed to reset it
to the local altimeter setting of 30.26 during descent.
If the field elevation is 134 feet,
and your altimeter is functioning properly,
what will it indicate after landing?
We need to remember a few things in order
to answer this question.
First of all, if we're flying at flight level 2,
what would they say, 290, we have 2992 dialed in.
So they're saying that we had 2992, because our altimeter was
set correctly, but we didn't reset it to 30.26
when we actually descended into our airport.
So at 2992, they're saying, what will you actually
read on your altimeter?
Well, if you had set in 30.26, you
would have read 134 feet, which is the field elevation.
That's the assumption, anyway, that you would have been
exactly on field elevation.
So the question is, how far is the difference between 30.26
and 2992?
And that's 0.34 inches of mercury.
Now, remember, 1 inch is 1,000 feet.
A tenth of an inch is 100 feet.
And a hundredth of an inch is 10 feet.
So 0.34 is 340 feet.
So the question is, are you going
to be reading 340 feet higher than field elevation,
or 340 feet lower?
Well, when you dial in the Colesman window,
if the Colesman window or the little altimeter setting,
you dial in, the altimeter goes down.
The altimeter goes down.
So we're going from 30.26.
If we had had 30.26 dialed in, we would be reading 134 feet.
But we've got 2992 dialed in.
So just in your mind, conceptually
think that you're dialing in from 30.26 to 2992.
The Colesman window, a little altimeter setting
is going down.
So what the altimeter is actually reading will go down.
So you would subtract 134 feet, or excuse me,
subtract 340 feet from 134 feet, and you're
going to get a negative number.
That's negative 206.
So you would read, actually, 206 feet below sea level
in this situation.
Answer number three.
Next question will be on page 46, question 471.
Bottom of the page.
On what frequency should you obtain in-route flight advisory
service below flight level 180, and we'll refer to figure 62?
We don't even need to refer to a figure in this case,
because any time you have an in-route flight advisory
service, or EFAS, E-F-A-S, that's always found on 122.0.
So I'm not even looking at that chart.
And by the way, the chart is not going to tell us
the frequency at all.
It will just have a little box showing
that there is an EFAS in-route flight advisory service.
So it's answer for 122.0 megahertz.
We'll go over to page 82 for our last question, which
is question number 847.
We have a long ways to go here.
Towards the bottom of the page.
When a climb or descent through an inversion or wind shear zone
is being performed, the pilot should
be alert for which of the following changes
in airplane performance.
As you go through a wind shear, your airspeed
is going to change, and your power required
to maintain your desired airspeed is going to change.
And so the first thing that would occur
would be an airspeed change, answer number 2,
a sudden change in airspeed.
Weather is what it's all about.
We don't expect you to learn it all here.
The purpose of this course isn't to teach you
everything there is to know.
There's a lot of good books.
The government has three of them.
Aviation Weather and two books that
deal with reports and forecasts.
I highly recommend that if you don't have those in your library
and you get them, there's a lot of good information
just watching television and AM weather
and talking to other IFR pilots about conditions.
This module is Aircraft Instruments.
We'll start with the instrument cross check and aircraft
control while you're IFR.
You'll get a detailed look at all the instruments.
I mean, we're going to look right inside of them.
You'll learn about the pitot static system, which
includes the airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator,
and altimeter.
We'll also discuss all the things that can go wrong
with these when you're IFR.
You'll learn about the gyroscopic driven instruments
also, which are the attitude indicator, directional gyro,
and turn indicator.
Next, you'll learn about the inherent errors
in the magnetic compass and how to use all the instruments
for proper control of your airplane.
Unusual attitudes will get a good working over.
Then we'll wrap this module up with a look at the radio aids
that IFR pilots use for navigation.
So far in your flying, you've used just your eyes looking
out the window to determine where you are
or where you have to go.
But as an instrument pilot in instrument conditions,
you don't have that luxury.
You need to be able to use instruments accurately.
And they would be your sole indication
of aircraft navigation or aircraft conditions.
So in this section, we're going to be taking instruments apart,
talking about them in detail, to include
their strengths and weaknesses.
Now on your front panel, you have six main instruments.
These are the airspeed indicator, the attitude
indicator, it's also called the artificial horizon
or vertical gyro, the altimeter, the turn and slip
or turn coordinator, depending upon the age of the instrument,
the heading indicator or directional gyro,
and the vertical speed indicator,
sometimes abbreviated VSI.
The attitude indicator and directional gyro
are powered by suction energized by an engine driven vacuum pump.
The turn coordinator is powered by electricity
as a backup in case this engine driven pump would fail,
you would have some information portrayed
on the instruments in front of you.
The airspeed, altimeter, and VSI are pitot static instruments,
getting their information from air pressure
outside the airplane.
Now the FAA likes to ask about the three steps or skills
involved with instrument flying.
These are instrument cross check, instrument interpretation,
and aircraft control.
With instrument cross check, simply look around the cockpit.
Don't fixate on any one instrument.
For instance, start at the attitude indicator,
move down to your directional gyro,
back up to the attitude indicator,
over to the airspeed indicator, back to the attitude indicator.
Your eyes are continually moving around the cockpit.
With instrument interpretation, it's
simply reading the instruments, determining what
information they're giving you.
And this becomes much easier as you practice.
Aircraft control is making the airplane aircraft
do what you want it to do based upon the instrument readings.
Now I'll briefly mention unusual attitudes.
An unusual attitude is a situation
which is unusual to normal conduct of flight.
Sometimes it's caused by the inattention of the pilot.
For example, you reach down to pick up a map during flight.
And as you do so, the airplane pitches up or pitches down.
This can happen even to experienced pilots.
So don't think just because you have some time under your belt
you're not going to have this.
For instance, there was an accident in the 1970s
in the New York area where an airliner, a Boeing 727,
crashed.
And one of the reasons it crashed
was it got into an unusual attitude.
We'll be talking about that in more detail later.
OK, now let's look at the individual instruments
in more detail.
In flight, the pilot needs to determine
the horizontal and vertical speed,
as well as the vertical position of the aircraft.
Now when you're in a car, you're directly
connected to the ground.
You could just measure the speed at which the wheels
turn to get your speed across the ground.
But in the air, you're not directly
connected to any set object.
So what we do is we use the relative speed
of the airflow across the wings or across the fuselage
to determine the speed of the airplane.
We use the pitot static system to measure these relationships.
There are two basic inputs into the pitot static system.
Pitot information, or the pitot boom,
measures the ram pressure of the airflow.
As we increase our speed, you'll have more air molecules
hitting this pitot boom, giving us higher indications.
The static information measures the pressure at that altitude.
It will decrease as we climb, because air pressure decreases,
and it increases as we descend.
There are three instruments that are fed information
from the pitot static system.
These are the air speed indicator, the vertical speed
indicator, and the altimeter.
Now some airplanes also have autopilots.
And if you have an autopilot, it gets its information
from the pitot static system as well.
Airspeed is always in relation to something.
We'll discuss the various types of airspeed
that we'll be covering in more detail later on,
and also that the FAA asks about.
Indicated airspeed is a speed you read directly
from the airspeed indicator.
Calibrated airspeed is indicated airspeed
corrected for any errors made in measuring it,
such as airflow across the pitot boom
or across the static part.
True airspeed is calibrated airspeed
corrected for non-standard temperature
and non-standard pressure.
Since most days are non-standard,
you can see that true airspeed is often
different from calibrated airspeed.
Ground speed is the speed in relation to the ground.
And we can measure this in two different ways.
First of all, we can measure it by timing the length it
takes to get across two points on the ground
and then measuring how far apart those points are.
The other way we can measure ground speed
is just by looking at our DME or our distance measuring
equipment in the airplane and, again,
timing how long it takes to go one mile or two miles
or five miles.
With a constant indicated airspeed,
true airspeed increases with altitude.
In our example here, both airplanes
are indicating the same indicated airspeed.
The one at the higher elevation or higher altitude
is going at a higher true airspeed
because the air molecules at that altitude
are farther apart.
And to get the same indicated airspeed,
we'd have to go faster in relation to the ground
or across those air molecules.
Here's a practical application of all that theory.
For any takeoff, you're looking for a certain indicated airspeed
to actually lift off or pull back on the yoke.
At sea level, we're going to run down the runway
until we see this indicated airspeed and then lift off.
At a higher elevation, let's say 5,000 feet,
we're looking for the same indicated airspeed.
But our true airspeed will be greater
since we're at higher altitude.
So our ground roll will be greater.
At an even higher altitude, let's say 10,000 feet,
we're still looking for the same indicated airspeed
for lift off.
But again, our true airspeed is going to be even greater,
giving us a much longer takeoff run than we
would have at sea level.
Now that we understand airspeed, let's
see how the airspeed indicator gets its information
from the pitot-static system.
As you can see, the airspeed indicator
is the only instrument fed by the pitot boom.
All three pitot-static instruments
get static information.
The airspeed indicator compares the pitot information,
or ram pressure, with the static pressure.
You can see why it's important to always check
the pitot boom and the static port on your walk-arounds
for any obstructions or ice.
Now if the pitot only were blocked,
the ram pressure would be basically zero.
So your indicator would be reading basically zero,
or at least a lot lower than it should be.
If the pitot and drain hole were both blocked,
now the ram pressure is blocked or stuck
within the pitot-static system.
And so the airspeed indicator would just
be an altimeter with funny numbers.
In other words, it would increase
as your altitude increases and decrease
as your altitude decreases, no matter what the airspeed is
actually doing.
This situation caused the accident I spoke of earlier.
An airline 727 on a charter was leaving the New York area,
climbing up to travel to Buffalo to pick up a football
team during the winter.
On takeoff, it climbed about 20,000 feet,
stalled out, and spun in all the way to the ground.
Just the three pilots were on board,
but all three were killed.
The reconstruction of the accident
came up with the fact that they failed
to turn on their pitot heat.
So the pitot boom iced over in the winter environment.
It was icy and overcast that day.
The pitot boom and drain port were probably iced over.
So the ram information going to their airspeed indicator
gave only, remember I said it turned the airspeed indicator
into an altimeter with funny numbers?
So as they climbed, their airspeed indicator
was increasing, indicating that they were going faster.
So they kept pulling the nose up to decrease that airspeed
during the climb.
They were light, and they're not normally light.
So they figured, boy, this airplane really performs
on a cold day when it's light.
They kept pulling their nose up, climbing faster.
Airspeed kept increasing until they
got to the point where the airplane was actually
in a stall, even though their airspeed indicator was
indicating an overspeed.
So this totally confused the pilots, and understandably so.
And that's what caused the stall and the spin
and the accident.
So don't think just because you're
becoming an instrument pilot these sort of things
will never happen to you, because they very well may,
and in fact have, to very experienced pilots in the past.
Let's look at the airspeed indicator now
and see what colors will tell us about certain airspeeds.
The white arc is the flap operating range.
The green arc is the clean operating range.
The yellow arc is the operating range in still air.
Red line is the maximum allowable speed.
VSO, or the stalling speed in landing configuration,
is shown by the bottom of the white arc.
VS, or the stalling speed with gear and flaps up,
is shown by the bottom of the green arc.
VFE is a maximum flap extended speed.
That's shown by the top of the white arc.
VMO is a maximum operating speed.
You should only exceed this in calm air.
It's shown by the top of the green arc.
VNE is your never exceed speed, or red line.
VA is a maneuvering speed.
It's a maximum speed that full control forces
may be used without danger to the airframe.
It's not marked on the indicator with the color.
It can be found in the operating manual
and usually changes with the gross weight of the airplane.
The altimeter is a second part of the pitot static system.
It has a movable speed of about 1,000 feet per second.
It has a movable dial located within what's
called the Kohlsmann window, so the instrument
can be adjusted for the local altimeter setting.
Pilots use the altimeter for two different reasons,
as a reference to the ground or obstacles, such as towers,
and as a reference to other aircraft in the air.
The second use may not be based on a precise distance
from the ground, such as flight levels
in the positive control area.
To check the altimeter before takeoff,
you dial in the given altimeter setting into the Kohlsmann
window, and then compare the indicated altitude
with the actual field elevation.
The two values must be within 75 feet.
To give you a perspective of altimeter settings,
first start with standard pressure,
2,992 inches of mercury.
That's the middle value that you'll probably see.
High pressure goes up into the mid 30s range, such as 30.60.
And low pressure stays in the 29 inches range.
Even in extremely low pressure areas,
such as in a hurricane, you won't hear a pressure
below about 2,850.
Just like there were different types of airspeed indications,
there are different types of altitude as well.
Indicated altitude is what you read directly off
of your altimeter with the local correct altimeter
setting dialed in.
This assumes a standard pressure change with altitude.
True altitude is indicated altitude changed
for non-standard temperature.
It's referenced to actual sea level.
Absolute altitude is what you would read
if you had a radar altimeter.
This gives you the height above the terrain that you're over.
For instance, if you were flying at 4,000 feet above sea level,
or MSL means sea level, above terrain
that was 1,000 feet above sea level,
your absolute altitude would be 3,000 feet.
Pressure altitude is altitude that's referenced
to an arbitrary datum plane.
This has been chosen as 29.92 inches of mercury.
This datum plane varies depending upon the day.
It may be above actual sea level.
It may be below actual sea level or at sea level,
depending upon the day.
You use pressure altitude for charts
and for the positive control area,
for entering or referring to the positive control area.
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected
for non-standard temperature.
This is computed from your flight computer
and used for entering the charts in your operating manual.
The altimeter, remember, is hooked up
only to the static pressure portion
of the pitot-static system.
Let's look at an altimeter to see how we actually read them.
Most pressure altimeters have three hands.
The hand with the triangle at the end of it
points to 10,000s of feet.
The short hand points to thousands of feet.
And the other long hand without the triangle
points to hundreds of feet.
And you read them in just that order.
Start at the 10,000 foot pointer, next the 1,000 foot,
and finally the hundreds.
On the first example, we see the 10,000 foot pointer near 0.
So we're going to be near sea level.
The thousands foot pointer is pointing near 1.
So we're going to be right around 1,000 feet.
The hundreds foot pointer is pointing at 880,
since each little mark stands for 20 feet,
or represents 20 feet.
So this is indicating 880 feet, just below 1,000 feet.
Let's look at another example.
Here we see the 10,000 foot pointer
between the 0 and the 1, indicating something
under 10,000 feet, around 8,000 feet.
The thousand foot pointer is pointing at the 8.
So we're going to be reading around 8,000 feet.
The hundred foot pointer is between the 8 and the 9,
or 880 feet.
Now this would not be 8,880 feet,
because the thousand foot pointer would be almost to the 9.
So this is 7,880 feet.
Another example, the 10,000 foot pointer
is between the 1 and the 2, over 10,000 feet,
not as much as 20,000 feet.
The thousand foot pointer is between the 2 and the 3.
So it's going to be between 12,000 feet and 13,000 feet.
The hundred foot pointer is between the 4 and the 5,
indicating 420 feet.
So this would be 12,420 feet.
And one final example, the 10,000 foot pointer
is pointing almost at the 1, or nearly 10,000 feet.
The thousand foot pointer is pointing just above the 8.
So we're just over 8,000 feet.
Now it's difficult to see, but the hundred foot pointer
is directly superimposed over the 10,000 foot pointer.
So you're just over 8,000 feet, and not quite as far
as 8,100 feet, or 8,080 feet.
8,080 would be what you'd read off of this altimeter.
Obviously altimeters are sensitive to pressure
fluctuations, but they're also sensitive to temperature
fluctuations.
And you cannot correct for temperature fluctuations
with an altimeter.
So you need to remember the high to low, look out below, warning.
If you're moving from a relatively high temperature
area to relatively low temperature area,
you're going to be lower than your altimeter is indicating.
So just watch out for being close to the ground.
When you change the setting in the Colesman window,
the altimeter reading changes.
Notice that when you increase the altimeter setting,
the altimeter increases.
When you decrease the setting, the altimeter decreases.
That fact will help us to answer an FAA question.
It may give us the altimeter of 3010, 3010,
and say changing the Colesman window or altimeter setting
from 3010 to 2992, how will that change the altimeter?
Going from 3010 to 2992 is 0.18 inches of mercury.
So that's 180.
So will that be 180 feet lower or 180 feet higher?
Moving it from 3010 to 2992 is moving the Colesman window
lower, so it lowers the altimeter by that amount of 180 feet.
We have two more air speeds that we need to mention.
Both of them have to do with rate of climb, V sub x and V sub y.
V sub x is the best angle of climb speed.
This speed will give you the greatest change of altitude
per horizontal distance.
You'd want to use Vx if you wanted to clear an obstacle
after takeoff.
V sub y is the best rate of climb speed.
It gives you the greatest change of altitude per unit time.
You'd want to use Vy if you were asked by ATC
to change your altitude quickly.
Now, if you get confused between V sub x and V sub y,
just remember that x has more angles than y.
So V sub x is your best angle of climb speed.
V sub y is your best rate of climb speed.
Now we'll move to the vertical speed indicator.
This is the third of the pitot static instruments.
It, like the altimeter, is fed from only the static vent.
The instrument measures the rate of change of ambient pressure
and shows us that change in hundreds of feet per minute.
The instrument has a lag in the information it displays.
Or in other words, if you descend in an airplane,
it won't show up on the VSI for several seconds.
So you don't want to use the VSI as your primary instrument.
Bring it into your cross check and then back out
to the other instruments.
Also, you want to check the VSI on taxi out.
Obviously, on the ground, you're not climbing or descending.
The VSI should be zero.
If it reads something other than zero,
let's say 200 feet per minute climb,
just take that as your zero point for the remainder
of the flight and then write it up when you get back.
We use the VSI to start our level off
from either a climb or descent also.
You want to lead your level off by 10% of the rate shown
on the VSI.
If you have 500 foot per minute climb,
you want to start your level off about 50 feet prior
to your level off altitude so that you reach the level off
altitude smoothly.
If the static vent becomes iced over, the VSI freezes.
Or in other words, the VSI will stay at zero,
not indicating a climb or descent,
no matter what the aircraft is actually doing.
On most aircraft, you have the possibility
of using what's called the alternate static vent.
This is mainly another static port,
most often located within the cockpit of the airplane.
The primary static vent is outside, the alternate is inside.
If this primary static port becomes iced over,
you can use the alternate and your three
pitot static instruments will still work,
though the indications will be slightly erroneous.
If the alternate static port is being used,
your airspeed will read a higher speed than actual,
the altimeter will read higher, and the VSI will jump
and then return to normal.
Now let's go on to the attitude indicator.
This is driven by suction powered by an engine-driven
vacuum pump.
The movable part of the instrument
is the ball behind the face plate.
The little airplane symbol, also called the horizon bar,
doesn't move as you fly, but you can adjust it with the knob.
You read angle of bank from what's
called the sky pointer on the top of the case.
Each of the first three marks from level flight is 10 degrees.
On the taxi check, the horizon bar
should remain relatively constant and not
tilt more than five degrees.
Now the attitude indicator has a tendency
to precess or give us erroneous information during the flight.
If we accelerate while in flight,
or let's say during a takeoff, the attitude indicator
will show us a climb, even though we're straight and level.
Or if we would decelerate, the attitude indicator
would show us a slight descent.
Now in a bank, the attitude indicator
will give us erroneous information or precess
after 180 degrees of bank.
Let's say we make 180 degree turn to the right.
After we roll out, we would indicate a slight turn
to the left and a slight climb.
This precess would cancel out if we
did an entire 360 degree turn.
Next we'll go to the turn and slip, sometimes
called the needle and ball.
There are three basic presentations of the turn
and slip indicator.
The oldest is a two minute turn and slip indicator.
The one with the little dog houses
on either side of the upright indices
is a four minute turn and slip indicator.
And then we have the turn coordinator
with an airplane symbol in the instrument.
Now all three instruments are powered by electricity.
This is just in case you would lose
your engine driven vacuum pump, which
powers your ADI or attitude indicator.
If you lose the engine driven vacuum pump,
you'd still have the electric gyro running your turn
and slip indicator, giving us rate of turn and bank
information.
Every turn and slip indicator gives us
rate of turn information with the needle
and coordination information with the ball.
In addition, the turn coordinator
gives us rate of bank indication,
or in other words, how fast the wingtip moves on the instrument
is how fast the airplane is banking into our turn.
Now we'll often talk of the term standard rate.
Our standard rate turn is three degree per second turn.
For 360 degree turn, this would take us two minutes
to turn 360 degrees.
On our oldest type of turn and slip indicator,
a half standard rate turn is indicated this way.
On the four minute turn and slip indicator,
a half standard rate turn is indicated halfway
between the dog houses.
On the turn coordinator, a half standard rate turn
is indicated with the wingtip halfway between the two marks
on the outside of the case.
We'll talk about skids and slips for a minute.
Think of a car going around a turn.
If a car is in a skid around a turn,
the tail end of the car will be outside of the turn
or outside of a coordinated turn.
Well, the same relationship occurs in the airplane.
A skid is when the tail of the airplane is outside
of the direction of the turn.
And a slip is when the tail of the airplane
is inside the direction of turn.
A skid will have the needle and the ball
on different sides of the case.
In other words, the needle will be indicating a right turn
and a ball would be to the left.
A slip will have the needle and ball
on the same side of the case.
Any time you see the ball out of center,
you want to think of stepping on the ball
to make a coordinated turn.
Or in other words, if you're in a right bank
and the ball is to the right, step on right rudder
to bring that ball back into the center.
If the ball is to the left, step on left rudder
or let up on right rudder to bring the ball back
into the center.
Let's take a look at the mechanics for a moment
of skids and slips by looking at lift vectors.
When flying level, the lift vector
is straight up away from the ground.
When you're in a turn, the lift vector is now at an angle.
The aircraft is kept aloft by the vertical component
of this lift vector and turned by the horizontal component.
A centrifugal force vector acts in the direction
opposite of the horizontal component.
In a coordinated turn, the centrifugal force vector
and the horizontal lift vector are of equal size.
When one gets to be greater than the other,
a skid or a slip develops.
The directional gyro is the last of the six primary instruments
found on your panel in front of you.
The DG, your heading indicator, is the other vacuum
powered instrument along with the attitude indicator.
You set the DG just before takeoff
by comparing it with a magnetic compass.
You should also compare it often with the MAG compass in flight
since it drifts from headings and needs to be corrected.
Since the MAG compass has a lot of errors and lags,
the DG takes away some of these errors
and makes for a better working tool.
Speaking of the MAG compass, let's look at it now.
The magnetic compass points to magnetic north, not true north.
True north is the actual north pole,
and charts are referenced to this.
The magnetic north pole is several hundred miles
from the true north pole and is, in fact, moving constantly.
At a certain point on the ground,
the angular difference between magnetic and true north
is known as variation.
The lines you see on charts connecting equal variation
are known as isogonic lines.
When the engine is operating and all the electrical equipment
is on, these items create small magnetic forces
that cause the compass to read slightly wrong.
This is called magnetic deviation.
Your aircraft should have a card on board listing the deviation,
and it needs to be determined with all normal equipment
operating.
On your taxi check, the magnetic compass
should indicate known headings.
Since runways are magnetically aligned,
this is an excellent opportunity to check the magnetic compass
just prior to takeoff.
Now, I mentioned a couple of errors
associated with the MAG compass.
The two main errors found with the magnetic compass
are acceleration error and northerly turning error.
Acceleration error occurs when you're
heading either east or west.
And just remember the acronym ANDS, A-N-D-S,
accelerate north, decelerate south.
When you're heading in an east or west direction,
and you accelerate the aircraft, the magnetic compass
will indicate a turn to the north.
Or if you decelerate, the magnetic compass
will indicate a turn to the south,
even though the airplane is not actually turning.
Northerly turning error occurs when you're
heading either north or south.
If you're heading north and you begin a turn to the east,
as your nose actually goes through 010, 020, 050,
and so on, the magnetic compass will lag that indication.
And in fact, as you start your turn to the right or east,
the MAG compass will actually indicate a turn to the left.
In other words, it will go from 360, or 000 for north,
to 350, to 340, and then it'll start catching up with you.
As you pass through east, it will read 090.
So it will be correct when you pass through east.
Now when you're heading south, the MAG compass
leads the indication.
As you start your right turn from south towards west,
the MAG compass will be ahead of your actual nose heading.
Just remember the south leads and the north lags.
Now the FAA also likes to ask questions
about primary instruments.
And actually, their point of view is confusing
until you see where they're coming from.
The definition of a primary instrument
is that instrument that doesn't change during a maneuver.
For an example, let's say we're in level flight.
In level flight, our primary pitch instrument
would be that instrument which doesn't change.
Well, if you're in level flight, the instrument
that is not changing is your altimeter.
So the altimeter is a primary pitch
instrument in level flight.
Well, let's talk about a constant rate climb.
What's your primary pitch instrument
during a constant rate climb?
Well, by definition, constant rate
climb, the VSI will not be changing.
It'll be at whatever, 500 feet per minute climb
or 1,000 feet per minute climb.
So the VSI, or vertical speed indicator,
is your primary pitch instrument during a constant rate climb.
Your pitch instruments are the attitude indicator,
the altimeter, the airspeed indicator,
and the vertical speed indicator.
The bank instruments are your attitude indicator,
heading indicator, and turn and slip indicator.
And your power instruments are your manifold pressure gauge,
if you have one, your tachometer or RPM gauge,
your airspeed indicator, and for those of you flying jets,
your EPIR, engine pressure ratio gauge.
Now, we've already talked about unusual attitudes,
but you need to know that there are specific steps
to recover from an unusual attitude.
During a nose-high unusual attitude,
you should first of all add power, then lower your nose,
and third, level your wings.
During a nose-low unusual attitude,
you want to first start by reducing power, secondly,
leveling the wings, and then lastly, raising the nose.
Unusual attitudes are a great way
to train new instrument pilots to use
the steps of instrument cross-check, instrument
interpretation, and aircraft control.
Now, since the attitude indicator
has the tendency to tumble when you're at a nose-high
or nose-low situation, you want to practice recovering
from unusual attitudes using a partial panel.
In other words, block out a few of your instruments
and level off without using your entire six primary flight
instruments.
Without the attitude indicator, level flight
is when the airspeed and altimeter stop,
stop changing, in other words, and the vertical speed
indicator reverses, in other words,
goes from a descent to a climb.
Now, let's look at some examples from the FAA question book.
For all of these unusual attitude problems,
you always start one place and then
move around to see if all systems are working
or if there's one system that's malfunctioning.
This particular question is one in which all systems are
working correctly, so we know that every gauge is reading
accurately from the given in the example question.
I always start at the attitude indicator
and then look to the other instruments
to get an idea of what's actually happening.
Looking at the attitude indicator,
we see that we're in a nose-low right bank.
So we're turning right and our nose is down below the horizon.
Looking down at the directional gyro underneath that,
you see the arrow pointing that the card is moving to the left.
Or in other words, we're seeing 3-0-0 go by, then 3-1-0.
We're in a right turn.
So those agree.
We're in a right bank.
And again, the attitude indicator indicating nose-low.
Looking at the airspeed indicator,
showing that the airspeed is almost at red line.
It's pretty high.
That would agree with our nose-low from our attitude
indicator.
Our turn coordinator is showing a right bank also,
which agrees.
Looking at our altitude, it's not moving.
There's no arrow around the altimeter,
so that's not changing.
And the vertical speed indicator is showing a descent.
So from all of that, we get the idea
that we're actually in a nose-low, right bank,
unusual attitude.
Remember, the steps when you're nose-low are first
reduce the power, then level the wings,
and then raise the nose.
Let's go on to another example.
In this example, we're told that one system has failed.
Again, starting at the attitude indicator,
that's showing that we're in a nose-high, right bank.
Looking down to the directional gyro,
the cart is moving to the left, so our heading
is moving to the right, or our nose is moving to the right.
So we're in a right bank.
That would agree with the attitude indicator information.
Look at your airspeed indicator.
The arrow in the upper left-hand corner
shows that the airspeed indicator is increasing,
and it's almost at red line.
Looking down at the turn coordinator,
we're in a right bank, as shown by the airplane symbol.
Looking over to the altimeter, the altimeter
is not moving, apparently.
There are no arrows around the instrument, so we're level.
And the vertical speed indicator below that is at 0,
so it's indicating that we're level.
So basically, what we have is that the attitude indicator
tells us we're in a right bank nose-high.
The directional gyro tells us we're in a right bank.
And the turn coordinator tells us we're in a right bank.
Now remember, the attitude indicator and directional gyro
are normally powered by suction.
The turn coordinator is normally powered by electricity.
So those two systems are telling us the same information.
So I would say that both systems are working, which just
leaves the pitot-static system.
Now remember, the airspeed indicator is increasing,
but the other two are frozen.
The altimeter and the VSI are frozen.
So that would tell me that now my airspeed indicator
is an altimeter with funny numbers
caused by ice around the pitot boom and the drain hole.
Remember, if the pitot and static information
is frozen over, then all you have
is vertical speed will freeze and altitude,
or altimeter, will freeze or indicate 0.
So that tells me our pitot-static information
is the one that's malfunctioning,
most likely due to icing.
Let's look at another example.
In this example, we're told that we have one instrument that's
malfunctioning.
The attitude indicator, again, is where we start.
That's indicating that we're in a nose-low left bank.
The directional gyro, the card is moving to the left,
so our nose would be moving to the right.
So we're in a right bank according
to the directional gyro.
We look at our turn coordinator.
That indicates a right bank turn.
Our airspeed indicator is around 80 knots and decreasing.
Our altimeter is increasing, as shown
by the arrow in the upper right-hand corner.
So we're in a climb.
And vertical speed is showing a climb as well.
A VSI is showing about a 600 foot per minute climb.
So everything on that panel is actually
showing that we're in a nose-high right bank,
except for the attitude indicator, which shows we're
in a nose-low left bank.
We're in a right bank according to the turn coordinator
and directional gyro.
We're climbing according to the altimeter and VSI.
And our airspeed would be decreasing,
which would agree with a climb.
All of those agree with a right turn nose-high.
Just the attitude indicator is the one
that's malfunctioning, indicating nose-low left turn.
Let's go to one final example.
In this example, we also have an instrument malfunction.
Looking at the attitude indicator first of all,
we see that we're basically level.
In other words, we're not climbing or descending,
but we're in our slight right bank.
Looking down at the DG, the card is moving to the left.
So the nose is moving to the right.
So we're in a right turn.
So that would agree with the attitude indicator.
Looking at our turn coordinator, we're in a right bank.
That agrees with the attitude indicator and the DG.
Our airspeed indicator is going past 60 knots
and decreasing and going to zero,
as indicated by the arrow above the indicator.
The altimeter, there is no arrow around the altimeter.
So that's telling me that we're level at 4,000 feet.
The vertical speed indicator is right at zero, so we're level.
So basically, what does that tell us?
The attitude indicator says that we're level in a right bank.
The altimeter would agree with that.
The VSI would agree with that.
The DG would agree that we're in a right bank.
And the turn coordinator would agree
that we're in a right bank.
The only thing left is the airspeed indicator
going to zero, which would probably
tell me that something has plugged up the RAM hole
or the pitot boom.
So that would be the instrument that is malfunctioning,
the airspeed indicator.
Now, your question might be, what
do you do if an indicator or an instrument malfunctions?
And you can do something on some malfunctions,
and you can't do anything on others.
For instance, let's say we notice
that the airspeed indicator is indicating erroneous
information, or the altimeter, or the VSI.
All three of those would be our pitot static instruments.
Well, in that case, I might turn on pitot heat
if it's not on already.
That would be a possibility of correcting that malfunction.
But if your vertical gyro is malfunctioning,
or if your turn coordinator is malfunctioning,
there's really nothing you can do about that, in which case,
you just have to live with the problem
until you get down and write it up and a mechanic can fix it.
Now we'll move on to transponders.
First of all, how a transponder works.
On the ground, the radar station emits a signal
looking for your airplane.
As that radar signal hits your transponder,
it basically responds by emitting its own signal back
to the radar station.
This signal is interpreted by air traffic control's computer
and enhances their return on their own screen.
The mode C portion of a transponder
just gives the altitude that the airplane is located.
So it, along with enhancing the signal on the radar screen,
also prints a little number to the side
saying that you're at 5,000 feet or whatever.
All transponders need to be checked by a mechanic
every 24 months.
Now let's take a brief look at some navigation instruments.
First of all, all nav-aids are magnetically oriented.
This just means that they're not oriented towards true north,
but magnetic north.
So any radial or any navigation that you're
flying off of a nav-aid is always magnetically oriented.
Secondly, always check the Morse code identification
any time you dial in a particular nav-aid.
This makes sure, first of all, that the instrument or the nav-aid
is operating, and secondly, by the fact
that that nav code is being transmitted,
it's good information.
For instance, sometimes maintenance
will be performed on a nav-aid.
And while it's being performed, while maintenance
is working on a VOR station, for instance,
they'll turn off the VOR Morse code identification feature.
So you know that that is not usable information.
All radials from a nav-aid are outbound or from the station.
You can be on a 060 radial or 090 radial,
but this is from the station, not to the station.
Also, you can be inbound or outbound on the same radial.
This just depends upon your heading.
The first navigational radial we'll talk about
is the automatic direction finder, or ADF.
These receive information from NDBs, non-directional beacons,
and AM radios.
ADFs have a fixed card.
In other words, the directional gyro underneath the needle
is not directional.
It's strictly pointing towards north,
or north is always at the top of the case.
We have an arrow on the instrument
that points a relative bearing to the station.
If the arrow is pointing to the top of the case,
the station is directly in front of the airplane.
If it's pointing to the right of the case,
it's off to the right of the airplane
or off the right wing.
We use a formula, or need a formula,
to actually use this to find the magnetic bearing
to the station using an ADF.
This formula is magnetic heading, or MH,
plus relative bearing, or RB, equals the magnetic bearing,
or MB, to the station.
Remember that, it's to the station, not from the station.
Let's look at an example.
Let's say we're given that the magnetic heading
is 215 degrees.
We would get this from the directional gyro
or the magnetic compass.
The relative bearing is 140 degrees.
We would get this from the ADF instrument itself,
and the needle is pointing at 140.
So we add 215 and 140, we get 355 is the answer.
That's our magnetic bearing to the station.
If they ask what was our magnetic bearing from the station,
we would either subtract or add 180 degrees
to get the reciprocal.
Subtracting, in this case, 180 degrees from 355
gives us 175 degrees from the station.
Let's look at another example.
Suppose we're given that our magnetic heading is 330 degrees,
again from our DG or MAG compass.
Relative bearing is 270 degrees.
This would be from the ADF instrument itself.
So we add 330 and 270, giving us 600.
Well, 600 is not a number that I recognize,
so we have to subtract 360 from that to get us down
into a number below 360.
Subtracting 360 from 600 gives us 240 degrees,
and that's our magnetic bearing to the station.
So much for ADF.
Let's move on now to the RMI, radio magnetic indicator.
This is similar to the ADF, but it has a movable card
underneath it rather than a fixed card.
So it's just like a DG underneath the needle of the ADF.
Since the card is a directional gyro,
the head of the needle is the magnetic bearing
to the station.
Points directly at the station, and it's magnetically aligned.
The tail of the needle is the magnetic bearing
from the station or the radial.
So if you're asked for a radial from an RMI,
you can read that directly from the tail on the instrument.
Some RMIs have two needles if you have two receivers on board.
So you'll have a number one needle and a number two needle,
each operate independently.
Now let's look at VORs, very high frequency
omnidirectional range.
A VOR radiates 360 radials from the station.
The parts of the VOR are the frequency selector, the to
from flag, the CDI needle, that's course deviation
indicator needle, and the course selector,
sometimes called the OBS for Omni Bearing Selector.
The VOR must be checked every 30 days
in order for you to use it.
This can be done by the pilot.
The primary rule in using the Omni Bearing Selector and the VOR
is to actually or mentally align the aircraft heading
with the OBS number.
In so doing, we get direct sensing.
Or in other words, if the needle's off to the left,
the course that we have dialed in is off to the left.
Or if the needle's off to the right,
the course is off to the right.
Now let's look at an example.
In this problem, you're given that the course selector
is set on 360 degrees.
And you're asked which airplane would have a from indication
on the ambiguity meter, that's the to from flag,
and the CDI pointing left of center.
In other words, the needle would be on the left.
First of all, since we have the course selector dialed
in to 360 degrees, mentally align all four airplanes
to 360 degrees or north.
If the bottom two were the correct answer,
you would have a to indication because 360 degree heading
would take us closer to the station.
The top two, if they were aligned with 360 degrees,
we would get a from indication because flying to the north
would take us further away from the station.
Since we're given that we have a from indication,
we know that it's either answer A, which
is the upper left hand choice, or answer B,
the upper right hand choice.
If we chose answer A as a correct answer,
we had 360 degrees dialed in in the OBS.
Our course would be to our right.
But we're given that the CDI is pointing to the left.
So A is not the correct answer.
Therefore, it must be B. If we were at airplane B,
we're heading 360 degrees.
We had 360 dialed in to our OBS.
We would have a from indication.
And the needle would be left of center.
So that's the correct answer of this problem.
Next, we'll move to the HSI, horizontal situation indicator.
For those airplanes that have an HSI,
this replaces your directional gyro.
The card in the HSI is basically a DG.
It gives us our heading directly underneath the mark
at the top of the case.
Also, we have our VOR information
on the instrument itself.
We have a CDI needle, or course deviation indicator needle.
We have a course selector, which is the arrow and tail that
actually rotates as you dial in using the knob.
And we have a true to from flag, which
are basically little triangles.
If the to from flag or triangle comes underneath the pointer,
then it's to the station.
If it comes underneath the tail of the needle,
then it's from the station.
The last item that we'll cover in the instrument section
is DME, distance measuring equipment.
This gives you distance away from a VOR TAC, VOR TACAN,
in nautical miles in its slant range, or the distance
from your airplane to the station on the ground.
The airplane sends out its own signal to the VOR.
The VOR responds to that signal.
Then the airplane measures the difference
in time between when it emitted its signal
and the response it received from the ground station
and gives you the information then in nautical miles.
The DME has its own IDENT, similar to the VOR IDENT,
but at a higher frequency, or in other words,
it sounds at a higher pitch than the VOR IDENT.
And it occurs about every third VOR Morse code IDENT.
Now DME is accurate only when you're
greater in distance away from the station than your altitude.
Or in other words, let's say you're at 10,000 feet.
You should only use DME for your accuracy beyond 10 nautical
miles away from the station.
This is because if you get within 10 nautical miles
when you're at 10,000 feet, most of the distance
is downward to the station rather than horizontally outward.
That's it for instruments.
With this good overview of your basic navigational instruments
and your basic flight instruments,
you should understand the system's well.
Now let's look at the aircraft instrument section.
We'll start on page four with question number 26.
Question 26, when must an operational check
on the aircraft VOR equipment be accomplished
to operate under IFR?
Well, for the VOR, we need to check it
within the preceding 30 days.
And that's answer number four.
Next is question number 28.
A coded transponder equipped with altitude reporting
capability is required in all controlled airspace.
With mode C, a transponder with mode C
is needed answer to above 12,500 feet MSL,
excluding at and below 2,500 feet AGL,
or within 2,500 feet of the ground.
You don't need a mode C. But any time you're above 12,500
and above 2,500 AGL, then you do need mode C
with the transponder.
Question number 79, who is responsible for determining
that the altimeter system has been checked
and found to meet FAR requirements
for our particular instrument flight?
The PIC, or pilot in command, is always
responsible for determining whether or not
any maintenance has been done in the final analysis.
And so that's answer four, the pilot in command.
Over to question number 34, which of the following data
must be recorded in the aircraft log or other appropriate log
by a pilot making a VOR operational check for IFR
operations?
That's answer number two, place of operational check,
the amount of bearing error, the date of check,
and the signature.
Over to page five, top of the page, question 37.
Your aircraft had the static pressure system
and altimeter tested and inspected
on January 5th of this year and was
found to comply with FAA standards.
These systems must be re-inspected and approved
for use in controlled airspace under IFR by?
Well, a pitot static system needs
to be checked every 24 calendar months.
So that's 24 months, and then to the end of that month.
So if it started on January 5th of this year,
it'd be two years in the future at the end of January.
So that's answer three, January 31, two years hence.
Next question, question 38.
Which checks and inspections of flight instruments or instrument
systems must be accomplished before an aircraft can
be flown under IFR?
Answer number one, the VOR within 30 days,
the altimeter system within 24 calendar months,
and the transponder within 24 calendar months also.
Question number 40, where is DME required
for an instrument flight?
Answer one, at above 24,000 feet MSL,
if VOR navigational equipment is required.
So anytime you're at or above 240 or 24,000,
then you're required to have DME.
OK, top of the page, number 41.
An aircraft operated under IFR under FAR part 91
is required to have which of the following?
It's answer three, a gyroscopic direction indicator.
Down to question number 44.
When making an airborne VOR check,
what is the maximum allowable tolerance
between the two indicators of a dual VOR system,
units independent of each other except the antenna?
OK, this is when you have two VORs
and you're checking them one against the other.
It's plus or minus four.
It's answer one, four degrees between the two indicated
bearings of a VOR.
Question number 45, bottom of the page.
What minimum navigation equipment
is required for IFR flight?
It's answer four, navigational equipment
appropriate to the ground facilities to be used.
Over to page six, top of the page, question 46.
You check the flight instruments while taxing
and find that the VSI indicates a descent
of 100 feet a minute.
In this case, you?
Answer two, you may take off and use 100 foot descent
as the zero indication.
OK, next question is number 78 on page nine.
Under what condition is pressure altitude and density altitude
the same value?
Remember, density altitude, I should say,
is just pressure altitude corrected
for non-standard temperature.
So if the temperature is standard,
density altitude and pressure altitude
are the same, and that's answer one at standard temperature.
Thanks, Jeff.
Question number 81, when an altimeter
is changed from 30.11 to 29.96, in which direction
will the indicated altitude change and by what value?
Well, you just need to find the difference between the two
altimeter settings.
From 29.96 to 30.11 is 0.15 inches of mercury.
0.15 translates to 150 feet, and it's
150 feet lower, since you're moving it from 30.11 to 29.96.
So it's answer three, the altimeter
will indicate 150 feet lower.
Next question will be number 97 on page 10.
Under what condition will true altitude be lower
than indicated altitude with an altimeter setting of 29.92?
Well, we're back to the high to low look out below again.
In this question, we're given that the indicated altitude
is actually higher, or true altitude
is lower than indicated altitude,
and that would be in colder temperatures,
answer two, in colder than standard air temperature.
Question number 99 near the bottom of the page,
altimeter setting is the value to which the scale
of the pressure altimeter is set,
so the altimeter indicates?
Number one, the true altitude at field elevation.
Next, let's just jump over to page 35, bottom of the page,
question number 360.
Which distance is displayed by the DME indicator?
It's answer one, the slant range distance in nautical miles.
Question 362, where does the DME indicator
have the greatest error between ground distance
to the vortex and displayed distance?
Well, because you're flying at some altitude above where
the station is, it's going to be when
you're closer to the station.
So it's answer two, high altitudes close to the vortex.
Question number 365, bottom of the page,
how should you preflight check the altimeter
prior to an IFR flight?
Well, it's answer four, you set the altimeter
to the current altimeter setting and the indication
should be within 75 feet of the actual elevation
for acceptable accuracy.
Thanks.
Over to question 373 on page 36, what indication
should a pilot receive when a VOR station is undergoing
maintenance and may be considered unreliable?
Any time you have no coded information
to the VOR or the NDB or the ILS or the DME,
any time no coded ident feature is heard,
that's the time you cannot use it or should not
use it for navigation.
So it's number one, no coded identification,
but possible navigation indications.
OK, we'll jump down a question to number 375.
What is the meaning of a single coded identification
received only once, approximately every 30 seconds
from a VOR tech?
Any time you hear a coded ident about every 30 seconds,
it's actually around 35 seconds.
That's the DME identification that you're hearing.
So it's answer number four.
The DME component is operative and the VOR component
is inoperative because the VOR ident should
happen about two or three times for every one DME ident.
Question 376, which DME indication
should you receive when you are directly over a VOR tech
site at approximately 6,000 feet AGL?
Remember, DME is nautical miles.
So we're not talking 5,280 feet would be an indication
of one nautical mile on the DME.
6,000 feet is roughly one nautical mile.
So that's what you would read, your height above the station
or above the VOR.
Answer number two, one.
OK, let's jump over to page 42, question 436.
As a rule of thumb, to minimize DME slant range error,
how far from the facility should you
be to consider the reading as accurate?
It's answer number two, one or more miles
for each 1,000 feet of altitude above the facility.
Next question is on the next page, question 447.
If you are departing from an airport where you cannot obtain
an altimeter setting, you should set your altimeter.
The nearest closest thing you can do
is set the altimeter to the published field elevation.
And that's answer number four to the airport elevation.
It's a question right off the private pilot exam.
Next is question 450 on page 44, question 450, top of the page.
Which altimeter depicts 12,000 feet?
And we'll look at the illustration
right below the question.
Let's look at the four separate choices.
Number A, what I like to do, first of all,
is just look at the 10,000 foot pointer.
That gives us an indication of what the altimeter is reading.
This one is somewhere past the 2,
so that's reading over 20,000 feet,
so we're going to throw that out.
B is something past 2 also, so that's
something over 20,000 feet.
C is indicating something just over 1,
so that would be consistent with a 12,000 foot reading.
And D is indicating just over 1, so either one of those choices
would be consistent with a 12,000 foot reading.
This one is reading, you see how the 100 foot
pointer is something over 200, so that's not
right on a cardinal or a 1,000 foot.
But D is, this is just over 1 in the 10,000 foot pointer,
so that's good for 12,000 feet.
The 1,000 foot pointer is pointing at the 2,
that's good for 12,000 feet, and the 100 foot
pointer is pointing at the 0.
So D would be our choice, and that's answer number 4.
OK, well next we'll go to question 462 on page 46.
Top of the page.
What is your position with reference to false intersection
if your VOR receivers indicate as shown?
We'll look at figure 61.
Well, probably the hardest part of this problem
is finding false intersection.
Let's look at figure 61.
False intersection is found right
by the letter G, which is the 139 degree
radial from Dezetta Vortac and the 264 degree
radial from the Beaumont Vortac.
Now I can find the actual radial by this little number
by the Vortac symbol or Vortac rose,
and 139 is found right on the line from the Dezetta Vortac.
So that's actually how we find false intersection.
So let's go back to the problem and see
what we're reading on the two VORs.
Now the number 1 OBS, number 1 VOR, is reading from 114.5.
114.5 happens to be the Beaumont Vortac.
We have 264 dialed in our OBS.
Remember, we want to take our heading to equal the OBS.
In other words, we want to mentally or actually align
our aircraft heading with what we have in the OBS.
Since we have 264 dialed in, that
would be the correct radial for the false intersection,
at least from the Beaumont Vortac.
This indicates that we're to the right, of course.
The actual line is to the right of center line.
So this tells us that we are south of the 264 degree radial.
If the radial is to our right, we're
to the south if we're heading 264.
We'll go over to number 2 now and look
at what we're reading from the Dezetta Vortac.
Number 2 shows that the OBS is 139,
which is correct for the false intersection.
We mentally align our airplane heading 139
with the OBS dialed in.
And again, we get the courses off to the right.
If we're to the left, in other words, the courses to the right,
we're to the east from the radial off of Dezetta.
So if we're to the south from Beaumont
and to the east from Dezetta, then we're
to the southeast of the false intersection.
And that's answer number 1.
Next question is number 516 on page 50.
When using VOR for navigation, which of the following
should be considered a station passage?
Well, using the VOR, the first positive indication,
the first positive indication of a from to a to indication
or from a to to a from would be station passage.
So that's answer number 4, the first positive,
complete reversal of the to from indicator.
Question 518, when checking the sensitivity of a VOR receiver,
the number of degrees in course change
as the OBS is rotated to move the CDI from center
to the last dot on either side should be between?
You're going to read 10 degrees from the center
to the full right hand scale.
So the nearest answer is 10 to 12 degrees.
That's answer number 4.
Question number 519, a VOR receiver
with normal five dot course sensitivity
shows a three dot deflection at 30 nautical miles
from the station.
The aircraft would be displaced approximately how far
from the course center line?
We need to know what how degrees off of a radial,
how that translates to mileage.
And the easy thing to remember is at 60 nautical miles,
one degree equals one nautical mile.
Given that we're at 30 nautical miles away,
so one degree equals half of that.
Half of 60 is 30, so half of one is a half.
So one degree equals a half nautical mile
that you're off course.
We're given that we have three dots.
And if it's a normal five dot displacement VOR,
the five dots, remember the 10 degrees from center
to full scale deflection.
So each dot is two degrees.
So if we have three dot deflection, three times two
is six, we're six degrees off course.
And now we need to translate that to miles.
If it's a half mile per degree, 0.5 times six is three.
And that's answer number three, three nautical miles.
Over to question 51, question 522.
To comply with ATC instructions for altitude changes
of more than 1,000 feet, what rate of climb or descent
should be used?
It's answer number four.
As rapidly as practicable to 1,000 feet above or below
the assigned altitude, and then at 500 feet per minute
until reaching the assigned altitude.
Next question, 523.
After passing a VORTAC, the CDI shows half scale deflection
to the right.
What is indicated if the deflection remains
constant for a period of time?
Well, think about it for a minute.
If we're right over the field or over the VOR
and we're just a half scale off, five degrees off,
it couldn't be much at all since we're
so close to the station.
But it's 60 miles out, five degrees off
is five nautical miles.
So if you maintain that same deflection of a half scale
deflection, you're actually getting farther away
from the radial, even though it doesn't show that on the VOR.
The VOR stays half scale off.
So it's answer number four.
The airplane is flying away from the radial.
Top of page 51, question 526, which OBS selection
on the number one NAV would center the CDI
and change the ambiguity indication to a two?
Let's look at the figure 67 in the back.
Look at the number one NAV here.
Number one NAV is showing us this could be considered
or is an HSI.
In other words, what we have dialed in
is under the arrow part of the HSI.
So we have 350 actually dialed in.
Our aircraft heading is found underneath the top mark.
And that's about 140.
Now if we have 350 dialed in, you
can see that we are half scale deflection.
Here's one dot, two, three, four, five.
So we're two and a half dots.
We're five degrees off.
We're heading or we have 350 dialed in.
So the question is, would dialing in 355 center the CDI
or moving it to 345?
Well, just think of this as the actual course
that we want to get to.
If we keep flying to the southeast in this case,
we're going to get closer to the radial.
In other words, this CDI indicator
will get closer to us.
So we're actually to the west of the 350 degree radial.
And if we're to the west of the 350 degree radial,
we would subtract that five degrees from 350,
which is what we have dialed in in the HSI.
So actually, we're in the 345 degree radial.
Now notice the little arrow here.
That's called a to from indicator.
Indicating the 350 heading would take us from the station.
The 350 would take us from the station.
We're to the north of the station
rather than to the south.
The question is, we need to change the ambiguity indicator
to a two.
And also, we want to center the CDI.
Well, centering the CDI at 345 would still
have that as a from indication.
Because from is pointing away from what we've dialed in.
We've dialed in 350, that's pointing away.
That's a from indication.
So we have to take the reciprocal of 345,
move it all the way around to the reciprocal of 345
to get a to indication.
So that's 165, answer number two.
Bottom of page 52, question 539, to which aircraft position
does HSI presentation D correspond?
We'll refer to figure 70 and 71.
Let's look at figure 71 first, since that gives us
the different HSIs that it referred to.
Looking at 71 and finding HSI D gives us
that we have 180 degrees dialed in.
We have a from indication.
So if we have 180 degrees dialed in and a from indication
tells us we're south, of course.
The radial is way off to the left.
So if we are actually heading 180 degrees
and the radial is to the left, we're
southwest of the VOR or the vortex.
So now we need to move to figure 70
to actually find the different choices for our answer.
Looking in the southwestern quadrant,
because that's what we talked about,
the only one that's actually heading 180 degrees
is what we had on the HSI presentation D is number 17.
So that is the answer, number 17.
And that's answer number four, number 17.
Question 542 on page 52, to which aircraft position
does HSI presentation A correspond?
Well, this is the same situation, just a different
method or different problem.
We're going to refer to figure 71
first, looking at HSI A in figure 71.
We see that we have a 205 heading.
And we have about 090.
We have 090 dialed in with a 2 indication.
Well, if 090 or east is dialed in,
and that would take us towards the station,
we're to the west of the station.
So now we just have to figure if we're northwest or southwest.
If we're heading to the southwest, heading 205.
So if we have 090 dialed in, and the CDI,
remember, would be our radial, as we get closer to that radial,
that radial CDI will come down and center itself.
Then we're actually to the northwest,
and we're heading 205.
So we need to refer to figure 71 again
to find out what corresponds with that.
And that would be up in the northwestern quadrant.
And then we're heading 205.
Northwestern quadrant, and the one
that refers or corresponds with the northwestern quadrant
with heading southwest is number one.
So it's answer number one to question 542.
Top of page 53, question 545.
Using the following illustration,
what is the magnetic bearing to the station?
Well, first of all, we need our formula
to find the magnetic bearing to the station.
And that's magnetic heading plus relative bearing
equals a magnetic bearing to the station.
So we need to get our magnetic heading
and our relative bearing to the station from the ADFs shown
below problem 545.
So let's look at those.
At the top, we see 330 as the actual heading of the aircraft.
And the relative bearing is found from this needle.
Now, this is a fixed card.
In other words, that 0 or north always
stays underneath the top indices.
So the relative bearing of the NDB station
is off to our left, or 270.
So we need to add 270 plus 330 from our actual magnetic
heading.
And when you add 270 and 330 together, you get 600 degrees.
Well, that is nothing that's found on a normal compass.
So we need to subtract 360 from 600 degrees
to find the actual relative bearing or magnetic bearing
to the station.
And subtracting 360 from 600, it's 240.
And that would be answer number three, 240 degrees.
Thanks, Jeff.
Question 547, what is the magnetic bearing
to the station as indicated by illustration D of figure 72?
Let's look at figure 72 and look at illustration D,
which is an RMI now.
This is not an ADF.
This is an RMI, radio magnetic indicator.
This RMI is a lot easier to use in a fixed card ADF
because by the very arrow itself,
it tells us our magnetic bearing to the station
and our magnetic bearing from the station,
or what radio you're on.
It also tells us our heading found underneath the indices.
Now, the question is, what is your magnetic bearing
to the station?
So you just look underneath the head of the needle,
and that's 055.
That would be answer number two, 055.
Question number 550, refer to instruments in figure 73.
On the basis of this information,
the magnetic bearing to the station would be?
Let's look at figure 73, and the first thing I want to point out
is that that description or picture
is actually upside down.
Figure 73 is showing the airplane upside down
or going towards the bottom of the case.
As you would actually see that in the airplane,
this would be turned around.
In other words, this would be at the top of the case.
This is the way the FAA actually gave us the question
and gave us the figures.
So our heading is actually 215 is our actual heading,
and our relative bearing is found over here at 140.
So again, we add 215, which is our magnetic heading,
plus our relative bearing of 140, giving us 355 degrees.
That would be answer number four of 550, 355 degrees.
Next question, 551, we'll still be working with figure 73.
Refer to instruments in figure 73.
On the basis of this information,
the magnetic bearing from the station would be?
Well, in this question, we've already
determined our magnetic bearing to the station
is 355 degrees in the previous problem.
You only have to do one additional step
to find out the magnetic bearing from the station,
and that's subtract 180 degrees from our 355.
So we subtract 180 from 355, and that comes out
to answer number two, 175 degrees.
Next question is 560 on page 54.
Refer to figure 76.
If the magnetic heading shown for airplane three
is maintained, which ADF illustration
would indicate the airplane is on the 120 degree
magnetic bearing to the station?
Well, let's look at figure 76, first of all,
and at airplane number three at the top.
Airplane number three is given that our magnetic heading
is 090.
Now, we're going to use the same formula,
magnetic heading plus relative bearing
equals magnetic bearing, but this time, we're
not going to solve for magnetic bearing to the station,
because that's given as 120 degrees to the station.
So what we want to solve for is our relative bearing,
because they're asking for which relative bearing would you
actually have.
Our magnetic heading is 090, and the relative bearing
to the station is 120.
So 090 plus x relative bearing equals 120.
Subtract 090 from 120, and that's 030.
So the relative bearing of 030 is
what we're going to look for.
We look down on the bottom now of that same figure,
figure 76, and find which one of the particular ADFs
is actually showing 030 relative bearing,
and that would be just that the head of the needle
is pointing to 030.
That's number E down here in the lower left-hand corner,
pointing to 030.
So it's answer number three for number E, or ADFE.
Don't go anywhere, Jeff.
We're still on figure 76.
Next question is 564.
If the magnetic heading shown for the airplane 6
is maintained, which ADF illustration
would indicate the airplane is on the 225-degree magnetic
bearing from the station?
So again, let's look at aircraft 6
to find out what magnetic heading we're given.
Magnetic heading that we're given for aircraft 6
is 220, excuse me, 225 degrees.
That's correct.
So that's a magnetic heading, and we're also
given that we're going to have the 255 magnetic bearing
from the station.
So remember that formula, the magnetic heading
plus relative bearing equals the magnetic bearing.
That's to the station, not from the station.
In order to change from or to to from,
we either add or subtract 180 degrees,
which ever would keep you within 360 degrees as a final answer.
So we're given that it's 255 from.
We would subtract 180 from 255 to give us
75 degrees as the magnetic bearing to the station.
So we found that our magnetic heading is 225 degrees,
and we're solving.
So it'd be 225 plus relative bearing x equals 75 degrees.
Well, 225 plus x equals 75.
We have to go through 360 degrees.
So either you can take an ADF or something in front of you
and actually count the number of degrees from 225 to 360,
and then from 360 or 0 to 75, which is probably
the easiest way of doing it.
Or you can do it mathematically.
And either way, you come out with 210 degrees
as being the difference from 225 to 075.
So 210 is the answer.
Now we need to go back to figure 76
to find which one of our ADFs is giving us
an indication of 210 degrees relative bearing.
And when we look at all of these,
again we're looking for the one that
has the arrow pointing to 210 degrees,
and that's arrow D or ADF D. So let's answer number 2 for ADF D.
Next question will be question number 568
on the top of page 55.
The course selector of each aircraft
is set on 360 degrees.
Which aircraft would have a from indication
on the ambiguity meter and the CDI pointing left of center?
We'll look at the illustration below.
We're given now that we have 360 degrees,
or we want to dial in 360 degrees,
and we want to have a from indication.
Well, if we have 360 degrees or north dialed in and a from
indication, we're north of the field.
So let's look at what's underneath the actual question.
We would choose one of the four choices
that has an actual airplane north of the field.
In other words, A or B. If we had C or D,
had 360 dialed in, we would have a to indication shown.
So the answer is going to be either A or B.
Now, in the body of the question,
it says that the CDI is left of center.
Well, if we rotate A, just mentally
rotate this on ahead of a pin.
So it's heading north to agree with what the OBS has.
The 360 degree radial, in other words,
this radial, if you want to think of right here,
would be to the right.
So it's not A. If we had B aircraft instead rotated
so that it's heading 360 degrees as the OBS is dialed in,
the 360 radial is actually to the left,
which is what you're asking for, pointing left to center.
So it's answer number B, and that's answer two
found underneath the problem.
Question 569, where should the bearing pointer
be located relative to the wingtip reference
to maintain the 16 DME range in a right hand
arc with a left crosswind component?
Let's talk about maintaining a DME arc on an RMI, first of all.
With an RMI, and you're maintaining,
let's say, a right DME arc or a right turn to maintain the arc,
you want to keep the needle of the bearing pointer
at the right wingtip.
If you do that and you're on the 15 mile arc or the 20 mile
arc or the 36 mile arc, it doesn't make any difference.
As long as you keep that bearing pointer in a no wind situation
on the wingtip, then you'll maintain the arc.
If it's a left arc, you want to maintain that bearing
pointer on the left wingtip.
So knowing that, now that's no wind.
If you have a wind, now you're going
to have to turn into the wind to maintain the arc.
And once you turn into the wind, that's
going to move that bearing pointer either in front of
or behind the wingtip.
Let's look at the RMI indication underneath the problem of 569.
Now in a right hand arc, we would be referring to the number
two needle, and that's the one with the double lines on it.
This is a number one needle, and this is a number two needle.
In a no wind situation, this head of the needle
would be pointing right at the right wingtip
or off the right side of the case here.
Now if the wind is from the left,
that would cause the needle, we would actually
rotate the nose to the left.
That needle would drop behind the wingtip down here.
So we want to find an answer that
says that the needle is behind the right wingtip.
And that's answer number one, behind the right wingtip
reference for VOR 2.
Good job, 571.
Determine the approximate time and distance
to a station if a five degree wingtip bearing change occurs
in 1.5 minutes with a true airspeed of 95 knots.
Pull out your pencil and paper, because here's a formula
that you're going to have to remember to do this one problem.
Now you don't find this problem anywhere else.
This is the only problem that refers to the one formula.
And that's to find the distance from the station.
You take your true airspeed times the number of minutes
that you actually are timing.
In other words, we turn so that the bearing is pointing right
at the wingtip again on our IMI.
And then we measure, we'll say for 30 seconds or 60 seconds,
we take that time, and then we measure the amount of bearing
change in that time.
Now using the formula again, it's
true airspeed times the number of minutes divided
by the degrees of bearing change.
And that gives us the distance from the station.
So we just plug in the information
that we were given in question 571.
We were given the true airspeed is 95 knots.
It takes 1.5 minutes, so 1 and 1 half.
And the degrees of bearing change
is 3 degrees, no, 5 degrees, I'm sorry, of bearing change.
So we take 95 times 1.5 and divide that by 5 degrees.
And we come up with 28.5 nautical miles.
So the answer is we're 28 and 1 half nautical miles
away from the station.
Now the only answer is number three,
28 and 1 half nautical miles in 18 minutes.
You can find the 18 minutes by just pulling out
your computer, your flight computer, getting 95 knots.
That's our ground speed or true airspeed.
And if we would right then make a turn towards the station,
28 and 1 half miles out from the station at 95 knots,
how long would it take?
Just figure it up, and it's 18 minutes.
And so that's answer number three.
Next question is question 573 on page 56.
Top of the page, in which general direction from the Vortac
is the aircraft located?
Let's look at the HSI indicated underneath the problem of 573.
This is telling us that we have 180 degrees dialed in.
The arrow is pointing to the two front indicators pointing
in the same direction.
So that's to the station.
So if we have 180 degrees dialed in,
and that would take us to the station
or closer to the station, that means
we're north of the field or north of the station.
So we're somewhere in the north, either the northeast
or the northwest.
Now if we have 180 dialed in and we're heading 240 degrees,
the CDI is in front of us.
In other words, as we keep going on a 240 degree heading,
this CDI will come down and drop center itself.
That means that the 180 degree bearing to the station
is actually to our right and in front of us.
And if that's the case, that would
be directly north of the station.
Then we're northeast of the station
since we're north because of this
and east because of the CDI being
in this section of the HSI.
So we're actually northeast of the station.
That's answer number two.
Next question is 752 on page 74.
752, the heading on a remote indicating compass
is 120 degrees and the magnetic compass indicates 110 degrees.
What action is required to correctly align the heading
indicator with the magnetic compass?
We'll refer to figure 92.
Let's refer right to figure 92 and I'll talk about the system
looking at the slave gyro illustration.
Figure 92 shows, you can't read this,
but there's a little button here.
When you push in the button, that slaves the gyro.
Remember, it said that it's a remote indicating.
So the gyro is someplace else and your indicator
is actually in the airplane.
Now this is a pretty complicated question
and probably will be used for your CFII or your instrument
instructors rather than those of you going just
for the instrument rating.
So if you push it in, you would slave it.
And when you pull it out, then that goes to free gyro.
Or in other words, now you can move,
once it is in the free gyro, you can move these little knobs
here that are, this is a counterclockwise adjustment
and the clockwise adjustment.
Now when we talk about the counterclockwise adjustment,
we're just adjusting the directional gyro
case counterclockwise.
Here we would be adjusting the directional gyro card itself
clockwise.
Now if you adjust the card clockwise,
that means that your heading is actually going to decrease.
You're going to go from 120 to 110.
If you go counterclockwise, the card's going counterclockwise,
then your heading is going to increase.
It would go from 120 to 130.
So we're given that we want to move it from 120 to 110.
So we would choose the clockwise adjustment.
And that's answer number four.
Select the free gyro mode and depress the clockwise heading
drive button.
Question 755, if both ram air input
and the drain hole of the pitot system are blocked,
what reactions should you observe on the airspeed
indicator when power is applied and the climb
is initiated out of severe icing conditions?
This is the standard, or one of the standard FAA questions
that they ask on just about all of their exams.
If the pitot boom is blocked by ice
and the drain hole is blocked by ice,
remember the airspeed indicator turns into an altimeter.
In other words, as you climb, the airspeed indicator
will increase.
As you descend, the airspeed indicator will decrease.
I don't care what the airspeed does.
It's just simply having to do with the altitude.
So the answer is number three.
No change until the actual climb rate is established.
Then indicated airspeed will increase,
because you're actually climbing.
Next, we'll move on to page 75.
Question 760, at the top of the page,
what indication should be observed on a turn
coordinator during a left turn while taxiing?
Well, on the turn coordinator or turn and slip,
while you taxi and do your checking turns,
you want the needle and the ball to go to opposite sides.
If you make a left turn, you want the needle left
and the ball right, and then a right turn, the needle
right, and the ball left.
Just remember that the needle and ball go to opposite sides
any time you do your taxi checkout using a turn
coordinator or a turn and slip.
So it's answer two.
The miniature aircraft will show a turn to the left,
and the ball moves to the right.
Question 762, when airspeed is decreased in a turn,
what must be done to maintain level flight?
Well, to answer this question, first of all,
think in level flight.
Forget the turn part.
Just in level flight, if you decrease your airspeed,
what do you have to do with the nose?
You have to increase the pitch up angle, in other words,
the angle of attack.
You have to increase.
So the same would occur in a turn,
whether it be a left turn or a right turn.
If you decrease the airspeed, the angle of attack
would have to increase.
Now, the other part of that is the angle of bank.
As you decrease your airspeed, to maintain
the same coordination, you would actually
decrease the rate of turn.
So it's answer one.
Decrease the angle of bank and or increase the angle of attack.
Question 763, on the taxi check, the magnetic compass should?
It's answer number four.
Swing freely and indicate known headings.
And again, a good known heading to determine
is the runway heading, because those are aligned magnetically.
So that's an excellent check just
before you actually take off.
Question 764, which condition during taxi
is an indication that an attitude indicator is unreliable?
It would be answer number one.
The horizon bar tilts more than five degrees
while making taxi turns.
Question 767, what is the primary bank
instrument once a standard rate turn is established?
Remember, the definition of a primary instrument,
I don't care if it's bank instrument, pitch instrument,
is that instrument which does not
change throughout the maneuver.
So they're saying, what's the primary bank instrument
during a standard rate turn?
Well, standard rate turn, you'd want
to keep your turn coordinator or turn and slip
indicating that standard rate.
So that would be our primary bank indicator.
Number two, answer number two, turn coordinator.
Question 768, what does the miniature aircraft
of the turn coordinator directly display?
It's answer number two, the rate of roll and the rate of turn.
Question 769, what is the correct sequence
in which to use the three skills used in instrument flying?
That's instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation,
and then aircraft control, answer number three.
Next, we'll go to question number 772 on page 76.
The rate of turn at any airspeed is dependent upon?
Any airspeed, horizontal component of lift.
Remember, that's what pulls us around in a turn.
So it's answer number one, horizontal component of lift.
Next question, 773, during a skidding turn to the right,
what is the relationship between the component of lift,
centrifugal force, and load factor?
Well, first of all, in any turn, our load factor
is going to have to be increased or greater.
So it doesn't matter if you're in a skidding turn
or a slipping turn or a coordinated turn.
Load factor, in other words, the lift vector
is actually going to have to increase as we start our turn
because, remember, now we're going
to have horizontal component of lift taking some of that lift
away from keeping us up and turning us.
So we'll look for an answer that has load factor increased
in a skid now.
Remember, that's the tail coming around,
like you're skidding around a turn in a car.
So the tail is actually coming outside of the turn.
Our centrifugal force is going to be
greater than the horizontal component of lift.
That's answer number two.
The centrifugal force is greater than horizontal lift,
and the load factor is increased.
Question 774, as power is increased
to enter a 500 foot per minute rate of climb
in straight flight, which instruments
are primary for pitch, bank, and power, respectively?
In this situation, the airspeed is assumed to remain the same.
We're going to actually bring our nose up and climb,
maintaining the same airspeed and a 500 foot per minute
climb.
So airspeed indicator would be the primary for pitch.
We'd actually rotate maintaining airspeed the same.
Remember, that's primary definition
of a primary instrument is that instrument that does not change.
So airspeed indicator would be primary for pitch.
For bank flight, it's given that that's a straight climb,
straight flight.
So our heading indicator would not change.
That would be our primary for bank.
And power would be manifold pressure gauge or TAC,
and that's answer number one.
Question 777, top of page 76.
What is the primary pitch instrument
during a stabilized climbing left turn at cruise climb airspeed?
Which instrument is not going to change at cruise climb airspeed?
In other words, airspeed is not going to change.
That's primary pitch.
That would be answer four, airspeed indicator.
Question 779, what is the primary pitch instrument
when establishing a level standard rate turn?
The key here is level.
Which instrument is not going to turn or not
going to change in level flight?
Well, the altimeter.
If it didn't change, the altimeter would remain the same.
Answer number two, altimeter.
Question 782, what instruments are supporting bank instrument
when entering a constant airspeed climb from straight and level
flight?
The FAA just doesn't make it easy to come out.
OK.
OK, they're asking for the supporting instrument here.
Now, the primary instrument would be the instrument again
that would not change, and that would be our heading indicator
because we're in straight and level flight.
Straight flight would be the primary bank instrument.
What is supporting bank instrument?
Those would be the attitude indicator and the turn
coordinator.
Answer number two.
Top of page 77, second column, question 791.
During coordinated turns, which force
moves the pendulous veins of a vacuum driven attitude indicator
resulting in precession of the gyro
toward the inside of the turn?
I chose this question because I think it's ridiculous.
I could care less what the pendulous veins do
in an attitude indicator as a pilot,
and I'm sure you could care less also, or couldn't care less
to be more accurate.
The answer is number four, centrifugal force.
And I would just tell you, if you get this question,
just memorize the answer, centrifugal force.
Pendulous veins, by the way, are the ones
that spin up the gyro from the air in an air driven system.
So that's really all you need to know.
We're not talking about building the instruments here.
We're just talking about being able to use it.
I think the FAA has gone a little bit overboard,
but it's answer four, centrifugal.
Good for the FAA, huh?
Question 794.
What information does a Mach meter present?
Mach is a measure of the speed of sound,
and it's usually in reference to the speed of sound.
If we were going the speed of sound, Mach would be one.
If we were going something under the speed of sound,
it would be point something, 0.7 or 0.5.
Or I'm talking high speed aircraft, obviously,
not us in 150s or 172s.
If you're going faster than the speed of sound,
you'd have something over Mach, Mach 1.3 or 1.5.
The answer is one.
It's the ratio of aircraft true airspeed
to the speed of sound.
Next, we'll go to page 78, question 797.
While recovering from an unusual flight attitude
without the aid of the attitude indicator,
approximate level pitch attitude is reached when the?
It's answer one, when the airspeed and altimeter stop
their movement and the vertical speed indicator reverses
its trend.
Question 798.
What is the relationship between centrifugal force
and the horizontal lift component in a turn?
Well, in this question, you have to assume
that it's a coordinated turn.
Because if it's not coordinated, a horizontal component
of lift and centrifugal force are not going to be equal.
So the only way to correctly answer this question
is assuming that it's a coordinated turn.
And in this case, it's answer two, horizontal lift
and centrifugal force are equal.
Question 798.
What is the relationship between centrifugal force
and horizontal lift component in a turn?
Well, in this question, you have to assume
that it's a coordinated turn.
Because if it's not coordinated, a horizontal lift
and centrifugal force are not going to be equal.
So the only way to correctly answer this question
is assuming that it's a coordinated turn.
Because if it's not coordinated, a horizontal lift
and centrifugal force are not going to be equal.
Well, in this case, you have to assume
Thanks for watching!